Explore topic-wise InterviewSolutions in Current Affairs.

DNA molecule originating from a virus, a plasmid, or the cell of a higher organism into which another DNA fragment of appropriate size can be integrated without loss of the vector's capacity for self-replication; vectors introduce foreign DNA into host cells, where the DNA can be reproduced in large quantities. 

Examples are plasmids, cosmids, and yeast artificial chromosomes; vectors are often recombinant molecules containing DNA sequences from several sources. 

(a) Complementary DNA (cDNA) 

DNA that is synthesized in the laboratory from a messenger RNA template. 

(b) Complementary sequence 

Nucleic acid base sequence that can form a double-stranded structure with another DNA fragment by following base-pairing rules (A pairs with T and C with G). The complementary sequence to GTAC for example, is CATG. 

(c) Cosmid 

Artificially constructed cloning vector containing the cos gene of phage lambda. Cosmids can be packaged in lambda phage particles for infection into E. coli; Permits cloning of larger DNA fragments (up to 45 kb) than can be introduced into bacterial hosts in plasmid vectors. 

It refers to the recovery and purification of biosynthetic products, particularly pharmaceuticals, from natural sources such as animal or plant tissue or fermentation broth.

An experimentally produced organism in which DNA has been artificially introduced and incorporated into the organism's germ line.

1. They are called secondary rocks.

2. They form from deposits or sediments obtained from weathering and erosion of other rocks.

3. They contain fossils.

4. They are always layered.

5. Sandstone, shale, gravel and conglomerate are examples of these rocks.

6. On the basis of construction, layered rocks are of two types:

(i) Fossil layered rocks.

(ii) Non-fossil layered rocks.

(a) Stages in Downstream Processing: 

A widely recognized heuristic for categorizing downstream processing operations divides them into four groups which are applied in order to bring a product from its natural state as a component of a tissue, cell or fermentation broth through progressive improvements in purity and concentration. 

Removal of insolubles → Product Isolation →Product Purification → Product Polishing 

(b) Antisense RNA technology :

An RNA molecule that is the reverse complement of a naturally occurring mRNA, and which can be used to prevent translation of that mRNA in a transformed cell.

(c) Autoradiography :

A technique that uses X-ray film to visualize radioactively labeled molecules or fragments of molecules; used in analyzing length and number of DNA fragments after they are separated by gel electrophoresis. 

(a) Carrier 

An individual who possesses an unexpressed, recessive trait. 

(b) cDNA library 

A collection of DNA sequences that code for genes. The sequences are generated in the laboratory from mRNA sequences. 

(c) Clone 

An exact copy made of biological material such as a DNA segment (eg. a gene or other region), a whole cell, or complete organism. 

(d) Cloning 

Using specialized DNA technology to produce multiple, exact copies of a single gene or other segment of DNA to obtain enough material for further study. Process, used by researchers in the Human Genome Project, referred to as cloning DNA. Resulting cloned (copied) collections of DNA molecules constitute clone libraries. Second type of cloning exploits the natural process of cell division to make many copies of an entire cell. The genetic makeup of these cloned cells, called cell line, is identical to the original cell. Third type of cloning produces complete, genetically identical animals such as the famous Scottish sheep, Dolly.

GRAS means 'generally regarded as safe category‘ which includes microbes which are non-pathogenic, non-toxic, non-antibiotic producing etc. These are generally used as hosts for production of recombinant molecules.

By putting together the irrigation facilities.

It is found in the deccan pleateu as well as Maharashtra, Sourastra, Malwa and Southern Madhya Pradesh Plateau.

1. Laterite soil is less fertile.

2. It is only useful for grass and bushes.

Constructed from yeast DNA, it is a vector used to clone large DNA fragments is called Yeast artificial chromosome (YAC). 

Bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) :

A vector used to clone DNA fragments (100 to 300 kb insert size; average, 150 kb) in Escherichia coli cells. Based on naturally occurring F-factor plasmid found in the bacterium E. coli. 

Bioinformatics :

The science of managing and analyzing biological data using advanced computing techniques. Especially important in analyzing genomic research data. 

Biolistics :

Remarkable method developed to introduce foreign DNA into mainly plant cells is by using a gene or particle gun. Microscopic particles of gold or tungsten are coated with the DNA of interest and bombarded onto cells with a device much like a particle gun. Hence the term biolistics is used. 

The staple food rice is extremely low in vitamin A and therefore the improvement of vitamin A required. Prof. Ingo Potrykus and Dr. Peter Beyer developed genetically engineered rice which is enriched in pro vitamin A (beta-carotenoid) by introducing three genes involved in the biosynthetic pathway for carotenoid. It is called 'golden rice‘, the seeds are yellow in colour because of pro-vitamin A is produced in the entire grain.

No, biomolecules like DNA and protein cannot exhibit biological activity in anhydrous conditions. Hence, life is unsustainable without water.

For instance, to isolate genomic DNA 

1. Remove tissue from organism 

2. Homogenise in lysis buffer containing guanidine thiocyanate (denatures proteins) 

3. Mix with phenol/chloroform - removes proteins 

4. Keep aqueous phase (contains DNA) 

5. Add alcohol (ethanol or isopropanol) to precipitate DNA from solution 

6. Collect DNA pellet by centrifugation 

7. Dry DNA pellet and resuspend in buffer 100 

8. Store at 4°C 

Each cell (with a few exceptions) carries a copy of the DNA sequences which make up the organism's genome.

These are transgenic tomatoes commercialized in U.S with longer shelf life due to slow ripening. Gas hormone, ethylene is involved in the regulation of fruit ripening. Therefore, ripening can be slowed down by blocking or reducing ethylene production. 

Biotechnology is a broad area of science involving multiple disciplines designed to use living organisms or their products to perform valuable industrial or manufacturing processes or applications pertaining to human benefit.

(a) In South Africa.

In the lower layers of earth, there is so much heat which results in cuts on earth’s surface, and the hot substance from deep inside earth comes out in the form of . ‘Lava’. When after cooling and solidifying, this lava takes the shape of a mountain then it is called a volcanic mountain. The example is Fugeyama volcanic mountain of Japan.

The quality depends on the base rocks i.e. if the metamorphatic rocks are made up of igneous rocks then their qualities are like igneous rocks, and if these are made up of sedimentary rocks then these are like sedimentary rocks.

Porous rocks have more sand while Non-porous rocks have more of soil in these

The earth’s interior is very dynamic. The lithosphere is broken into seven very large and several small plates. This deformation in the earth’s crust and structures produced by this deformation are called tectonics. This model or theory that explains this distribution, evolution and causes of earth’s crustal features is known as the theory of plate tectonics.

We can identify minerals in rocks by their colour, texture, lustre and hardness. Some minerals like salt can also be identified by tasting but it is not a good method. It can endanger human life.

Igneous rocks are formed by the solidification of lava. Lava cools rapidly and solidifies on the surface of earth. Crystals are formed due to the cooling of lava. These rocks are intrusive as well as extrusive. It is believed that the earth was in a molten state in the beginning. Igneous rocks were the first rocks to be formed due to cooling and solidification of molten matter. Hence, these are called Primary rocks.

The importance of Igneous rocks
Igneous rocks supply different types of minerals. Granite is used for house-building and idol-making. Basalt is used for road-making. Monuments are made from these hard rocks.

The soil has two elements minerals and excreta. The soil contains minerals in good quality and these are derived from basic rocks. The excreta comes from the dead animals. It increase the fertility of soil.

The three groups of rocks on the basis’ of their formation are igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic.

Mica is a non-metallie mineral: It has a great importance. This mineral is very useful in manufacturing eletromic goods. It is also used in making other things like lamps, chimneys, paints, radars, rubber, poper, transparent sheets and aeroplanes.

1. This soil contains potassium, phosphoric acid and lime.

2. It contains less of nitrogen and bio substance.

Black soil is known as cotton soil. It is ideal for cotton agriculture.

These minerals give us energy and required ignition run factories and motor vehicles. Main power minerals are coal, mineral oil and natural gas.

Out of this coal and mineral oil have special importance the description is as follow :

1. Coal: Coal is the main power mineral. These days the use of coal has decreased. Now it is used in thermal plants for producing electricity. The coal used for this purpose is stone coal. This coal was made in the sedimentary rocks deep inside the earth. It took crores of years in this process. Most of the coal stock in the world is found in 35° to 65° latitude. 90% of world coal is found in China, USA, Russia and European countries. Besides there are large stocks of coal in South America, Africa, North America and Asian sub-continent. Japan and Thailand also have stock of coal.

India produces 5% of coal. Damodar Valley is the main coal-production belt. Madhya Pradesh and West Bengal are coal-rich states.

2. Mineral Oil: It is known as Liquid Gold. Its name has been given because of its use and importance. Its called petroleum or driving force. Because it is extracted from earth like other minerals so it is called mineral oil. It is given the name of petroleum because it is made up of two words— Petra + Olium. Petra stands for rocks and olium means oil. So the literal meaning of Petroleum is oil received from rocks. It is fossil fuel. Most of the Petroleum that we get from inside the earth is in raw form. After refinement of this unrefined raw form, we get many products like Petrol, diesel, kerosene oil, gas, grease, wax, etc.

Most of the oil stock in the world is in South-west Asia, which includes areas like Saudi Arab, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait and United Arab Emirates.

Inside the earth’s surface: Molten substance is called Magma. When it comes outside through pores/cutting in earth’s surface, it is called Lava.

Bocks are the chief materials of earth’s crust. Rock-forming materials are known as minerals.

False. 

Correct : Igneous rocks are formed by the cooling and solidification of molten rock called magma.

Alluvial soil, black soil, red soil, laterite soil, dry soil, mountain soil.

1. Humus

2. Porous

3. Marble

4. Lava

5. Secondary.

(a) Karnataka.

Two types of Rocks: Absorbing and Non-absorbing. While Absorbing rocks easily soak water but non-absorbing rocks don’t easily absorb water.

Mineral oil is known as Liquid Gold. This name has been given because of its increasing use and importance. It, is also called Petroleum or driving energy. It is also extracted from earth like other minerals. It is made up of two words- Petra and Oliuin. In Latin language Petra means rock and Olium means oil i.e. oil received from rocks. It is a fossil fuel which is made up of animals leftovers being pressed inside Sedimentary rocks.

1. It is made up of the flow of lava.

2. It is useful for cotton agriculture.

(a) Igneous.

The substances that create rocks are known as minerals. These are extracted through mining. 

The classification is as follows :

1. Metallic minerals: It contains the particles of metals. It includes iron, copper, tin, aluminium, gold, silver, etc.

2. Non-metallic minerals: These don’t contain the particles of metals. These are sulphur, gypsum, abhrak, phosphorus, potassium, etc.

3. Power minerals: These minerals give us energy, which helps us to run our factories and motor vehicles. Coal, petroleum, natural gas are main power minerals.

Metallic minerals :

1. Iron: The iron ore is used from a small nail to a very big ship. The whole industrial machinery, motor vehicles, rails, agriculture machinery all are based on iron ore. The iron and steel has brought revolution in the industrial sector. In India it is produced mainly in Orissa, Jharkhand, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka and Goa.

2. Copper: Copper is the earliest found metal in the human history. From the industrial point of view, after iron comes the place of copper. The metallic age started with the use of copper. Many utensils are made of copper. In today’s age its importance has increased. It is a good conductor of electricity so, it is used for making electric cables. Telephone cables,  railway engines, aeroplane and watches, etc. contain the use of copper. Chile, in South America, is the biggest producer of copper in the world followed by USA. In African continent there are maximum stores of copper. India, Japan, Australia also produces copper. In India, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan are known for copper.

3. Bauxite: It is derived from aluminium. It is a light metal and is used in making aeroplanes. Moreover trains, motor vehicles, buses and electric cables also contain bauxite. The products made up of this metal do not get rusty. So, these products can be used for fairly long time.

Maximum bauxite is available in Australia. In India it is found in Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand.

Deccan trap is an extensive area in the N.W. part of India covering about 5 lakh sq. km. It has been formed by lava flows. Lava has solidified to form Basalt. It is useful for cotton cultivation.

Soil is an important resource that becomes the basis of agriculture and foodgrains production. 

In India, six types of soils are found of which the following four types are major :

1. Alluvial soil

2. Black soil

3. Red soil

4. Laterite soil.

1. Alluvial Soil: This soil is derived from sediments of rivers and is confined to river basins and coastal plains. Alluvium is very fertile because it is renewed every year during floods or deposition work of rivers. It contributes enormously to growth and development of agriculture in India. It is found in the states of Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa, Bengal, Rajasthan and coastal areas of Brahmaputra valley and Peninsular India.

2. Black Soil: This lava soil is also known as Regur soil or Black Cotton soil. It is black because it is formed in its place of origin. It is found in parts of Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, North Karnataka, Southern Tamil Nadu and parts of Madhya Pradesh.

3. Red Soil: The presence of iron oxide is responsible for reddish colour. When fertilisers are added these soil become very productive for growing crops like rice, millets, cotton and sugarcane. Red soils are found in Malwa region, Chhotanagpur plateau, parts of Chhattisgarh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Orissa.

4. Laterite Soils. These are not very fertile soils. They occur in high places of plateau region where rainfall leaches nutrients in the soil. Laterite rock is best suited for building purposes rather than for agriculture. These soils are found in parts of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh. Orissa, Bengal and Summits of Western and Eastern Ghats.

Deccan plateau is made up of Basalt

Soil is a valuable natural resource. Its importance is in its fertility. Many human and economic activities depend upon soil. Most of the civilizations have flourished near the fertile soil beds of Nile and Indus rivers, Tigris, Euphrates and Yangste valleys. Even today fertile valleys and rivers attract dense population. India has been able to produce foodgrains for its large population on the strength of its fertile soil.

On the basis of their formation rocks are of three chief types as shown in the diagram, namely— Igneous, Sedimentary and Metamorphic.

1. Igneous: These rocks are formed from cooling and solidification of molten material rising from interior of the earth called magma. When cooling and solidification happens just near the ground or above the ground they are called Extrusive Igneous Rocks. If cooling and solidification happens inside the earth, these rocks are called Instrusive Igneous Rocks. Basalt and Rhyolite are examples of extrusive igneous rocks and granite and gabro are examples of intrusive igneous rocks.

Igneous Rocks

Characteristics:

• When igneous rocks are exposed on the surface of the earth they are weathered and provide materials for other types of rocks. As a result the igneous rocks are called Primary Rocks.
• These rocks contain crystals whose size depends on rate of cooling.

2. Sedimentary Rocks: The material for sedimentary rocks may be derived from weathering and erosion of all types of rocks- igneous, metamorphic or old sedimentary rocks. They may contain fossils formed from remains of dead plants and animals.

There are two types of sedimentary rocks: inorganic and organic,

(a) Organic Sedimentary rocks are formed from organic matter derived from plant and animal remains, shell and skeletons of dead marine animals, decayed and decomposed plant and animal life as well as direct precipitation of minerals in solution of water.

(b) Inorganic Sedimentary rocks are formed due to weathering and erosion of all types of old rocks, clay, sand and mud deposited in oceans and lakes.

Characteristics:

• They have a layering arrangement.
• They may contain fossils.
• They may have ripple marks left by water.
• They are softer than any other rock.
• They are pervious or water can easily enter.
• There are no crystals in sedimentary rocks.
• Secondary ores of bauxite, manganese and other minerals are found in secondary rocks. Only sedimentary rocks are sources of fossil fuels. They also provide rich soils and materials for building and construction industry.

3. Metamorphic Rocks: Igneous and sedimentary when subjected to pressure and heat form sedimentary rocks. Examples- sandstone, granite, gnesis. Metamorphic rocks are made up by two ways and are found deep inside the surface of the earth.

The two ways are:

1. Transformation by heat. It happens because of hot magma, which solidifies the rocks that comes into its contact.

2. Transformation by pressure. Sometimes the pressure of upper rocks transforms the structure of lower rocks.

Humus. Humus is a dark substance formed in soils. It is a dead organic matter formed by decay of animals and plants. Trees, shrubs, grass and bacteria help in the formation of humus. In warmer climates, humus is destroyed by countless bacteria. In colder areas soils are rich in humus and it is collected in the soil. Tropical humid soils are poor in humus because it is consumed by bacteria.

Humus is vital to the fertility of soils. It provides nitrogen, phosphorus and calcium to the soils. It sustains other forms of life. It helps the weathering of minerals to add to fertility of soils. It increases water holding capacity of soils.