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सड़क दुर्घटनना से हम अपना बचाव निम्न रूप में कर सकते हैं

1.पैदल, साइकिल एवं रिक्शा चालकों को सदैव बायीं तरफ चलना चाहिए।

2.सड़क पर चलते समय मोबाइल फोन का इस्तेमाल न करें।

3.दो पहिया वाहन वाले हेलमेट का प्रयोग अवश्य करें।

4.चार पहिया वाहनवाले सीट बेल्ट का प्रयोग अवश्य करें।

5.नशे की हालत में वाहन न चलायें।

6.ओवर टेकिंग न करें। धैर्य बनाये रखें।

7.सड़क चित्रों का अनुपालन करें।

सड़क यातायात के नियम विवेकपूर्ण होते हैं और उनका विवेकपूर्ण पालन करना भी आवश्यक होता है। सड़क पर चलने वालों की सुरक्षा के लिए अनेक कानून एवं नियम बनाये गये हैं जिसका पालन करना प्रत्येक नागरिक का दायित्व होता है। जिससे हर कोई घर सुरक्षित पहुँच सके।

पैदल, साइकिल एवं रिक्शा चालकों को हमेशा अपनी लेन में अर्थात् बायीं तरफ रहना चाहिए एवं सड़क पार करते समय दायें-बायें देखने के बाद ही आगे बढ़ना चाहिए। व्यस्त सड़कों पर हमेशा जेब्रा क्रासिंग का प्रयोग करना चाहिए तथा क्रास करते समय कभी यह न सोचना चाहिए कि वाहन चालक उसे देख रहा है। सड़क की संरचनात्मक ढाँचागत सुविधाओं का पूरा उपयोग हो इसलिए सब-वे (तल मार्ग), फुट ओवर ब्रिज सबका पालन नियमगत करना आवश्यक होता है। शार्टकट या आसान विकल्प खोजना खतरनाक हो सकता है।

पैदल यात्रियों को सड़क पार करते समय मोटर-वाहनों एवं अपने बीच पर्याप्त दूरी रखना चाहिए और पार्क की गई या खड़ी गाड़ियों के बीच से रास्ता नहीं बनाना चाहिए। सड़क के खतरों से अधिकांशत: बच्चे ज्यादा प्रभावित होते हैं, जिसमें हमेशा चालक की गलती नहीं होती है, क्योंकि बच्चों की लापरवाही और जागरूकता की कमी से भी सड़क दुर्घटना की सम्भावना बढ़ जाती है। बच्चे हमेशा बड़ों का अनुसरण करते हैं। इसलिए उनके सामने विवशता में भी सड़क के नियम का उल्लंघन नहीं करना चाहिए और उन्हें ‘रुकें, देखें, सुनें, सोचें’ का मूल मंत्र बताना व पालन कराना अति आवश्यक होता है।

यातायात के पाँच नियम निम्नलिखित हैं –

1.बहुत तेज गति से वाहन न चलायें।

2.नशे की हालत में वाहन न चलायें।

3.सीट बेल्ट एवं हेलमेट जैसे सुरक्षा साधनों का प्रयोग करें।

4.गलत तरीके से ओवर टेकिंग न करना।

5.पैदल, साइकिल एवं रिक्शा चालकों को सदैव बायीं ओर चलना चाहिए।

हादसों से बचने के लिए यातायात के नियमों का पालन करना अति आवश्यक है। इसके ज्ञान के अभाव में एवं सुचारु रूप से पालन न करने के कारण भारत में प्रत्येक वर्ष 1,40,000 से अधिक व्यक्ति सड़क-दुर्घटना में मारे जाते हैं। ऐसी विकट परिस्थितियों का अनुमान लगाया जा सकता है कि विश्व भर के कुल वाहनों में से केवल एक प्रतिशत ही वाहन भारत में हैं, जबकि विश्व की कुल सड़क-दुर्घटना में से 10 प्रतिशत हादसे भारत में होते हैं। विडम्बना यह है कि कोई नियम तब तक अपने लक्ष्य को नहीं प्राप्त कर सकता जब तक पालनकर्ता उसे आत्मसात् करने की कोशिश न करे।

सड़क दुर्घटनाओं से बचने के लिए हमें यातायात के नियमों का पालन करना चाहिए। ये यातायात के नियम निम्नलिखित हैं –

1.पैदल यात्रियों, साइकिल एवं रिक्शा चालकों को हमेशा अपनी लेन में अर्थात् बायीं तरफ रहना चाहिए।

2.सड़क पार करते समय दायें-बायें देखने के बाद ही आगे बढ़ना चाहिए।

3.व्यस्त सड़कों पर हमेशा जेब्रा-क्रासिंग का प्रयोग करना चाहिए।

4.पैदल यात्रियों को सड़क पार करते समय मोटर वाहनों एवं अपने बीच पर्याप्त दूरी रखनी चाहिए।

5.दोपहिया वाहन चलाते समय हेलमेट का प्रयोग अवश्य करना चाहिए।

सड़क सुरक्षा से तात्पर्य है-सड़क पर होने वाली दुर्घटनाओं से बचाव । क्योंकि विश्व में सड़क यातायात में मौतें और जख्मी होना एक साधारण घटना हो गयी है। विश्व स्वास्थ्य संगठन के अनुसार प्रतिवर्ष 10 लाख से अधिकं सड़क हादसों के शिकार व्यक्तियों की मौत हो जाती है। इनमें से अधिकांश दुर्घटनायें अज्ञानतावश हो जाती हैं। यदि हम इसकी जानकारी करके यातायात के नियमों का पालन करें तो सड़क दुर्घटनाओं से काफी हद तक बचा जा सकता है।

विश्वभर के कुल वाहनों में से केवल एक प्रतिशत ही वाहन भारत में हैं।

पैदल, साइकिल एवं रिक्शा चालकों को बायीं तरफ चलना चाहिए।

भारत में वर्ष 2011 की अवधि में लगभग 4.9 लाख सड़क दुर्घटनायें हुई हैं, जिसमें 1,42,485 लोगों की मृत्यु हुई। वाहन चलाते समय कुछ मानवीय भूलें होती हैं जिससे दुर्घटना हो जाती है, इसलिए ऐसे तथ्यों पर गहन विवेचना की आवश्यकता होती है। बहुत तेज गति से वाहन चलाना, नशे में गाड़ी चलाना, चालक का ध्यान भटकाने वाली चीजें, लाल बत्ती का उल्लंघन करना, सीट-बेल्ट और हेलमेट जैसे सुरक्षा साधनों की उपेक्षा, लेन ड्राइविंग का पालन न करना और गलत तरीके से ओवर टेकिंग करना आदि कारणों से सड़क-दुर्घटना की सम्भावना बढ़ जाती है।

यातायात दो शब्दों से मिलकर बना है-यात + आयात ।

1. Yes. I have (We have) cats, dogs, hens and cocks.

2. Yes, we are comfortable with the pets at our house.

3. Yes, we treat them in a friendly manner. We play with them.

4. If we find any strange animals, we will not go near them because we are afraid of them. They may harm us.

a. ¹⁵N is the heavy isotope of nitrogen and it can be separated from ¹⁴N based on the difference in their densities. 

b. ¹⁵N was incorporated into newly synthesised DNA. 

c. The two molecules were distinguished by cesium chloride centrifugation in which these two separated into two different bands at different positions based on their densities. 

d. E. coli culture is taken at equal intervals to know the progress of the experiment as generation time of E. coli is 20 minutes. 

e. After 20 minutes the culture had an intermediate density showing a band in the middle tube and after 40 minutes, the culture had equal amounts of hybrid DNA and the light DNA showing two bands, one in the centre and one at the bottom. 

f. They concluded that DNA replicates semi-conservatively.

Mesophyll tissue.

Chollenchyma.

(a) S-phase/synthetic phase (of interphase). 

(b) Enzymes for DNA replication 

• Various enzymes are required as catalysts during DNA replication in living cells. 

• DNA-dependent DNA polymerase: It catalyses the polymerisation of deoxynucleotides on DNA template. 

• Helicase: It unwinds the DNA strand to form the replication fork. 

• DNA ligase: It joins the Okazaki fragments which are formed on the lagging strand. 

(c) During DNA replication in the two newly synthesised daughter DNA one strand is parental (conserved) the other is newly synthesised. That is why it is called semiconservative.

Endangered: A type of animal or plant that may soon no longer exist. e.g.: Whale.

Nomenclature: Naming of organisms with a distinctive scientific name.

Evolution: Change gradually. The scientific idea that plants and animals developed gradually from a simple to more complicated forms.

Correct option: (D) all the above.

Systematics is the study of classification of living organism with emphasis on their evolutionary relationships. It is an interdisciplinary study involving the different branches such as genetics, embryology, palynology, etc. It involves identification and nomenclature, so it is often considered synonymous with taxonomy.

1. Pedosphere: The outer soil zone of the Earth. 

2. Soil profile: Soil is formed by many horizontal layers called soil profile.

Correct option: (C) Linnaeus

Watson is related with the proposition of DNA structure. Robert Hooke is associated with discovery of cell. Dixon is associated with the transpiration pull theory of plants.

A change in the speed of locomotion (or frequency of turning) in a motile organism or cell which is made in response to a change in light intensity is called photokinesis. It involves undirected random movement in response to light.

Correct option: (B) systematics

The movement of organism in response to light, either towards the source of light as in Moths (positive phototaxis) or away from light (Earthworm (negative phototaxis).

Correct option: (D) hierarchy

Correct option: (C) taxon

Eurytherm:

1. Organism that can tolerate wide range of temperature. 

2. E.g: Human beings.

Stenotherm:

1. Organism that can tolerate narrow range of temperature. 

2. E.g: Fishes.

Snakes are stenotherms since they can tolerae only a narrow range of temperature fluctuation.

Eurytherms:

1. Organism that can tolerate wide range of temperature. 

2. E.g: Human beings

Stenotherms: 

1. Organism that can tolerate narrow range of templerature. 

2. E.g: Fish

In fishes, the osmotic concentration of the body fluids changes with that of surrounding water osmotic concentration. Hence they are called conformers.

1. Fishes undergo aestivation to avoid summer related problems. 

2. Bears undergo hibernation to avoid winter related problems.

1. Cold deserts are characterized by cold winters with snow fall and high overall rainfall throughout the winter and occasionally over the summer. 

2. E.g: Ladakh region in India.

Snails undergo aestivation during summer to avoid heat and overcome dessication.

1. Evergreen rain forest 

2. Seasonal rain forest 

3. Semi evergreen forest 

4. Dry deciduous forest

Moisture in the form of invisible vapor in the atmosphere is called humidity, which is generally expressed in terms of absolute humidity, relative humidity or specific humidity.

In certain conditions, if the organisms is unable to migrate, it may avoid the stress by becoming inactive. This is seen commonly in bears going into hibernation during winter. Some snails and fish go into aestivation to avoid summer related problems like heat and desiccation.

1. These forests occur in eastern North America, northeastern Asia and western and central Europe. 

2. Have well-defined seasons with a distinct winter. Moderate climate and a growing season of 140-200 days during 4-6 frost free months distinguish temperate forests.

3. Annual temperature varies from -30° C to 30° C. 

4. Precipitation (750-1500 mm) is distributed evenly throughout the year. 

5. Soil is fertile, enriched with decaying litter. Canopy is moderately dense and allows light to penetrate, resulting in welldeveloped and richly diversified understorey vegetation and stratification of animals.

6. Flora is characterized by 3-4 tree species per km2. Trees have broad leaves that are lost annually such as oak, hickory, beech, hemlock, maple, basswood, cottonwood, elm, willow, and spring flowering herbs.

7. Fauna consists of squirrels, rabbits, skunks, birds, deer, mountain lion, bobcat, timber wolf, fox, and black bear. Based on seasonal distribution of rainfall, the types of temperate forests are: 

8. Moist conifer and evergreen broadleaved forests: wet winters and dry summers.

9. Dry conifer forests: dominate higher elevation zones; low precipitation. 

10. Mediterranean forests: precipitation is concentrated in winter (<1000 mm /year).

11. Temperate coniferous forests: mild winters, high annual precipitation (> 2000 mm /year). 

12. Temperate broad-leaved rainforests: mild, frost-free winters, high precipitation (> 1500 mm/year), evenly distributed throughout the year.

1. Location, Geographical position (Latitude and Longitude) 

2. Climate and physiochemical environment 

3. Predominant plant and animal life 

4. Boundaries between biomes are not always sharply defined. Transition or transient zones are seen.

1. Grasslands occur in temperate and in the tropical regions. 

2. They have hot summers, cold winters, and irregular rainfall. 

3. Often they are characterized by high winds. 

4. The low irregular rainfall is the factor which makes the difference between a temperate deciduous forest and a temperate grassland. 

5. Herbivores like antelope, bison, wild horse, jack rabbit, ground squirrel and prairie dogs are abundant.

6. Predators include coyotes, foxes, hawks and snakes. 

7. In India, fauna of grasslands includes Elephant, Gaur, Rhino and Antelope.

8. Flora of grasslands include purple needle grass, wild oats, foxtail, ryegrass and buffalo grass.

1. Location, Geographical position (Latitude and Longitude) 

2. Climate and physiochemical environment 

3. Predominant plant and animal life 

4. Boundaries between biomes are not always sharply defined. Transition or transient zones are seen.

Correct option: (B) They contain either DNA or RNA.

Correct option: (B) H. J. Lam

Correct option: (C) electron microscope

Correct option: (C) Louis Pasteur

M. W. Beijerink called the extract of infected tobacco plant as virus-venom or poisonous fluid. Stanley obtained viruses in crystallized form. F. Twort discovered bacterial viruses.

Stanley obtained TMV in crystalline form.

Micronutrients: 

Such essential elements which are found less than 1.0 mg per gram of dry weight of plant are called micronutrients. Although these are found in low amount, they play an important role in plant metabolism. These are also called trace elements. These are eight in number. Example: B, Cu, Cl, Mn, Mo, Zn, Fe and Ni. 

Micronutrients: 

Elements which are found in plants in an amount less than 1.0 mg per gm of dry weight are called minor or micronutrients. Although required in very small amount, they play a significant role in plant metabolism. These are also called trace elements. These are nine in number – B, Cu, Cl, Mn, Mo, Ni, Zn, and Fe.

Besides the above 17 elements, some other elements have also been found beneficial in higher plants. These are called beneficial or functional elements. Eg: Na, Si, Co and So.

•  Essential elements are also classified on the basis of their function or role in plant nutrition. These categories are: 
• Structural elements: The essential elements which are constituents of biochemicals are called structural elements. Example: e, h, o, n. 
• Energy-related elements: Such essential elements are useful in energy-related biochemical reactions in the plant. Example: Phosphorous in ATP and Mg in chlorophyll. 
• Enzyme activators: These essential elements act as activator or inhibitors of different enzymes. Example: Mn, Zn, Mo. Mg, Etc.

Plants absorb mineral salt from the soil in the form of cations and anions through different methods. The mechanism of mineral absorption can be understood under the following heads. 

(1) Passive absorption 

1. Mass flow hypothesis 

2. Ion exchange theory 

3. Donnan equilibrium theory

(2) Active absorption 

1. Carrier concept 

2. Ion pump or cytochrome pump concept 

3. Electrochemical gradient hypothesis 

(1) Passive absorption: 

According to this theory, mineral elements enter the cell from the soil solution along their electrochemical potential gradient i.e. from their higher concentration to the place of their lower concentration without any expenditure of energy of the cell. Three theories have been put forwarded in support of passive absorption of minerals. 

1. Mass flow hypothesis: 

According to this theory, under the influence of transpiration pull, mineral ions are also absorbed along with the stream of water. Mass flow, also called as the bulk flow is the unidirectional movement of molecules or ions through the root along with a stream of water due to the suction force created by transpiration pull. An increase in the rate of transpiration results in to increase in the rate of passive absorption. 

2. Ion Exchange theory: 

Exchange of cations and anions in between the external solution (soil solution) and the surface of the root is called ion exchange. This hypothesis assumes that exchange of cations and anions takes place by ions of similar charge i.e. of the external solution can exchange with on the surface of the membrane and similarly the anion can also exchange with free hydroxyl ion. 

3. Donnan equilibrium theory: 

• This theory was proposed by Donnan (1927). 
• According to this theory, there are some fixed ions in the cell which cannot pass out of the cell membrane. These are called stable ions, whereas both anions and cations can enter the membrane from outside. 
• Normally there is an equilibrium of ions between external and the internal solution. This theory assumes that a cell has a concentration of fixed ions to which its membrane is impermeable. An equal number of anions and cations from the external solution will diffuse across the membrane until it reaches the state of equilibrium. 
• This theory explains the accumulation of anions against a concentration gradient without the participation of metabolic energy

Chlorosis: 

• Due to the degradation of chlorophyll, the leaves become decolourized and become pale yellow coloured. 
• This effect is called chlorosis. 
• Deficiency of Mg, N, Fe, and Mn etc. result in chlorosis. 

Necrosis: 

• Death or degradation of cells of plant tissue is called necrosis. 
• Due to this effect, the leaves show spots, rotting, or blight symptoms.
• Deficiency of Ca, Mg, Cu, and K etc. causes necrosis of cells.

Macronutrients: 

Such essential elements which are found in a plant in the range of 1.0 to 10.0 mg per gram of dry weight of plant are called macronutrients or mega nutrients. 

These are further divided into two categories. 

• Primary macronutrients – Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium are also called as critical elements and soils normally show a deficiency of these elements.
• Secondary macronutrients – Calcium, Magnesium, and Sulphur are secondary macronutrients. Essential elements: 
• Green plants synthesize carbohydrate by photosynthesis using absorbed from atmosphere and water absorbed from the soil. 
• Plants require several inorganic mineral elements and these are derived from soil or atmosphere. 
• Out of 105 elements found on earth, about 60 elements have been found present in plants, but all these are not essential for plants. 
• Various studies have revealed that for normal growth of a plant, seventeen (17) elements are necessary. These are called essential elements. 
• Many non-essential elements present beyond a certain limit may be toxic to plants. 
• A criterion for determining the essentiality of 17 essential elements: 
•  These elements are necessarily required for normal growth, development and reproduction of plants. 
• The function of the essential elements should be specific and its deficiency can be fulfilled only by this element and not by any other element. 
• The element must be directly involved in the metabolism of the plant. 
•  A specific symptom must appear in the plant due to deficiency of a specific element and the symptom must disappear by a supply of that element. 

Macronutrients: 

• Elements which are found in the plant in an amount from 1.0 to 10.0 mg per gm of the dry weight of the plant are called macronutrients. 
• These are nine in number – C, H, O, N, P, K, S, Mg, and Ca. 
• Among this N, P and K are considered as primary macronutrients and also called as critical elements whereas Ca, Mg and S are considered as secondary macronutrients.

Nitrogen is used in the synthesis of amino acids, proteins, DNA, RNA, chlorophyll and other organic compounds. 

• Nitrogen regulates respiration and growth of plants.
• It is required more in actively growing cells and buds. 

Deficiency Symptoms: 

• Chlorosis of leaves occurs first in old leaves and later on in young leaves.
• Due to the degradation of chlorophyll, anthocyanin pigment is formed and the leaves appear pinkish in colour.
• Rate of cell division and rate of protein synthesis is reduced and plants become stunted due to reduced growth.

Symptoms include poor plant growth, and leaves that are pale green or yellow because they are unable to make sufficient chlorophyll. Leaves in this state are said to be chlorotic. Lower leaves (older leaves) show symptoms first, since the plant will move nitrogen from older tissues to more important younger ones.