Explore topic-wise InterviewSolutions in Current Affairs.

(i) I will phone you when I will get home from school. 

(ii) Hurry up! Madam will be annoyed if we are late. 

(iii) If it rains today, we will not go to the play. 

(iv) When you see Mandal again, you will not recognize him. He is growing a beard. 

(v) We are off today. We will write to you after we are back.

(i) Why didn’t you turn up at the meeting? We all were eagerly waiting for you. 

(ii) Kindly write your name and address in capital letters. 

(iii) I was pleasantly surprised to see him at the railway station. I thought he was not coming. 

(iv) It is perfectly believable that I am not responsible for this mess. 

(v) He fell over the step and nearly broke his arm.

A Visit to a Historical Place

Travelling is always source of joy and education. A visit to a historical place is very interesting and informative. India is a land of monuments and memorials. The Golden Temple at Amritsar has religious importance. The paintings of Ajanta and Ellora paint the life of the primitive man in pictures. The Taj at Agra is one of the seven wonders of the world. Last year, we, a group of twenty students, went to see this work of art.

Ernest never forgot the story that his mother had told him. He was dutiful to his mother and helpful to her in many things, assisting her much with his little hands, and more With his loving heart. In this manner he grew up to be a mild and quiet youth.

A son of the valley had become a soldier many years before. After a great deal of hard fighting, he was now a famous commander – known on the battlefield by the name Blood-and-Thunder. Being old and tired now, he returned to his native valley. It was being said that at last the likeness of the Great Stone Pace had actually appeared. On the day of the general’s arrival, Ernest and all the other people of the valley left their work, and proceeded to the spot where a great banquet had been prepared. Soldiers stood on guard, flags waved and the crowd roared.

Gather gold died. His wealth had I disappeared before his death. Since the melting away of his gold, it had been generally believed that there was no likeness between the ruined merchant and the majestic face upon the mountain.

At the root of principle of public dominance, lies the liberal outlook for the freedom of an individual.

• State is a necessary evil. 
• Liberalism is a philosophy of capitalism.

Liberal belief of political science says that it is necessary for a state to be secular for freedom of an individual.

 This statement is related to Liberalism.

(b) Freedom of the individual

A. he was ten times more thoughtful than he had ever thought.

At the end of the disabled day a child realises what misfortune is.

Liberalism line of thought is absolutely opposed to all types of autocracy.

The fundamental rule of liberalism is personal freedom.

Positive liberalism accepts the mutual complementary relation between freedom of an individual and duties and powers of a state.

Correct option is B. gardener

The helping conditions in the development of liberalism are: 

• Renaissance 
• Religious Reformation.

Anita is described to the author as a girl with curly red hair and that she is on crutches:

• Jeremy Bentham 
• Adam Smith.

• John Stuart Mill 
•  T.H. Green.

(d) All of the above

(d) Liberalism

Evaluation of Liberalism: 

Liberalism is an important and progressive line of thought of modern period. Its by word is personal freedom. It establishes such a social system that an individual should not go for his livelihood or choice of lifestyle under the subordination of any dominant impact.

The following are the main principles of liberalism: 

1. Liberalism has faith in the rationality of an individual, hence it supports free contemplation. 

2. Liberals think that a society should be formed on the basis of logic and new ideals should be formed by eliminating old system based on ancient history or traditions. 

3. According to liberals, an individual is naturally free and complete perse. 

4. Liberalism believes that an individual is an accomplishment and a society or a state is means. 

5. Liberals believe that society or state are artificial institutions. 

6. Liberals believe in natural rights of an individual. 

7. According to liberals, a state should not interfere in the religious matters of its citizens. In state’s points of view, all religions are similar. 

8. Liberalism believes in human equality and the rule of law. 

9. It believes in democratic government system and has faith in a welfare state. 

10.Liberalism supports the principle of national self-determination. 

11.Liberalism has flexible outlook in relation to duties and objectives of a state. 

12.Liberalism supports the freedom of individual in absolute form.

Criticism of Liberalism: 

The following are main points of criticism of liberalism:

1. State is not a necessary evil. The formation of a state has been done for fulfilling the necessities of human life. It is a human welfare institution. 

2. State does not decimate freedom, instead it protects the freedom of an individual through rules and laws. 

3. Open competition is detrimental to weaker class. 

4. It is a philosophy of capitalist class. It grants rights to the state for intervention into economic matters only to make the economy favour line of capitalist trend. 

5. It is the concept of liberalism that by gradual development, it is quite possible to bring about social changes, whereas, in fact, social changes in the class – divisioned society can be made only by to class-struggle and revolution. 

6. This school of thought negates historical traditions. 

7. This doctrine regards a state as an artificial institution, whereas a state is the result of gradual development.

In view of the above analysis, it becomes quite clear that liberalism enjoys a special place in the history of political philosophy. In political field, liberalism supports a democratic government system based on freedom and equality. In economic field, liberalism emphases on the policy of non-interference. In religious field, liberalism stresses on religious freedom and intolerance. Liberalism has raised objections against the prevalent blind faith, orthodoxy, farces, illiteracy, starvation, and useless rituals etc. in the society and it has made endeavors to make the life of an individual happy.

• State is a moral and welfare institution. 
• Faith in administration of law.

According to liberals, state and society are artificial and man has ‘created’ them. These institutions of state and society are created for the comfort of the people according to their own discretion.

According to liberalism, people’s rights are natural.

If the author had to describe people and things to someone else, it would make them more interesting to him.

Advent and Development of Liberalism: 

Main attributes / circumstances of birth (advent) and development of liberalism are as follows : 

(1) Renaissance: 

In the 14th century, the renaissance in Europe starting from Italy reached France, Spain, Germany, and as a result, the dominance of church in the field of art and culture ended, and in politics also, the common man got motivated. This changed the outlook of human beings whose impact was visible in philosophical, scientific, economic and technical fields. 

(2) Religious Reformation Movement: 

The main reason for the advent of liberalism is religious reformation movement. Prior to this movement, there was a dominance of church in whole of the Europe. The pope was equated to God, and in religious sphere, he was considered supreme and an individual was his ‘slave’. In the 16th century, Martin Luther objected to the autocracy of the pope. He has the concept that any person having faith in God can establish contact with him through the study of religious scriptures, and for that, there is no need for any mediator in the form of a pope of Catholic church. Luther’s movement come into existence in the form of “Protestant Religion”. 

(3) Scientific Revolution: 

As a result of scientific revolution in 16th and 17th century, one part emerged that the whole world is like a ‘loom’ (machine), which is omnipresent, self operative and is managed by unaffected rules. In this way, scientific methods got encouraged to find out the truth. This method became the foundation stone of liberalism. 

(4) Intellectual Revolution: 

In 18th century, the entire western world was swept over by an intellectual revolution, which changed the line of thoughts and view-points of the period. Voltaire, Rousseau, Locke, Montesque, Adam Smith, Getel, Kant and Thomas Paine, etc. clarified that it is logical power of an individual, which is capable to retrieve truth with regard to any field of life. This outlook became the ideal of liberalism. 

(5) Industrial Revolution and Advent of Capitalist Class: 

In medieval period, an individual had no free existence and rights. People had no economic and religious freedom in their life. They were under the influence of the church and feudal powers. The industrial revolution took place in 18th century. It is an indicator of these changes in economic field which are the obvious results of scientific revolution. As a result of industrial revolution, big factories were established resulting in growth in production. As a result, the economic power shifted from feudal class to upper-middle class. There appeared new industrialists and a new labour class. 

(6) Reaction Against Autocracy: 

Another main reason of the advent of liberalism was reaction against feudal autocratic governments. In 16th and 17th century, there was feudal government system in Europe. Some of the kings regarded themselves as the incarnation of God and established autocracy. In this condition, many thinkers like John Locke, Herbert Spencer, T.H. Green, J.S. Mill etc. propagated the concept of freedom and rights of an individual. Because of this, the path of advent of liberalism was paved.

‘The little blind thing’ – a girl with bandage eyes knew everyone in the school- campus kid the little boy leading her described to her everything, thus she could recognise people.

It is so, because there has been an emphasis on the negative role of a state for the safety of freedom of an individual in traditional liberalism.

Industrial revolution.

To oppose autocratic monarchy, communist system and dominance of the church.

Negative liberalism regards a state as a negative institution and a necessary evil.

• Emphasis on negative role of the state for the safety of freedom of an individual, 
•  Demand of political rights.

There are two streams of liberalism :

• Traditional liberalism 
• Modern liberalism.

Difference between Traditional liberalism and modern liberalism: Both the forms of liberalism – traditional and modern, think of the individual as the central point of the entire system. These thoughts regard an individual as the accomplishment and other organizations including the state as the means. Both, the freedom of an individual and his rights are at the topmost priority. The distinction between ancient and modern liberalism can be understood on the basis of the following points:

1. Difference on the basis of development: 

The development of ancient liberalism took place in 16th to 18th century, whereas the development of modern liberalism is thought to be since 19th century till date. 

2. Difference on the basis of reasons of their development: 

At the back of the development of ancient liberalism, there are many reasons, including reaction against tyrannical monarchy, imperialism and populism, whereas the advent of modern liberalism took place in the form of reaction against capitalism and Marxism. 

3. Difference on the basis of concept of the state: 

Ancient liberalism regards the state as a necessary evil. In it, there has been a stress on negative role of a state for the protection of freedom of an individual, whereas the line of modern liberalism does not the regard state as a necessary evil. It considers it as a moral and welfare institution. In modern liberalism, the welfare of an individual, especially the welfare of a weak and person, considered mandatory for his freedom. 

4. Difference on the basis of nature of state: 

Traditional liberal thinkers have faith in non – interference of the state, whereas modern liberals believe in a moral and public welfare state. 

5. Difference in the light of freedom: 

Ancient liberalism supports unlimited freedom of an individual, whereas modern liberalism supports controlled freedom of an individual under the acknowledgment of social and state – related interests. 

6. Difference in the light of rights: 

Ancient liberalism assumes the rights of an individual as natural, whereas modern liberalism assumes them (rights) as having been provided and are to be controlled by the state. 

7. Difference in respect of social and economical viewpoints: 

Ancient liberalism accepts minimal role of a state in social and economic fields, whereas modern Liberalism accepts a wider and pervasive role of the state in socio – economic field. 

8. Difference in viewpoints of main supporters:

In the development of ancient liberalism, Jeremy Bentham, Adam Smith, H. Spencer, John Locke, Ricardo, etc. played an instrumental role, whereas in the development of modern liberalism, John Stuart Mill, T.H. Green, L.T. Hobhouse, H. J. Laski and Maclver contributed in a big way.

Types of liberalism: 

Two main types of liberalism are: 

• Traditional liberalism
• Modern Liberalism.

1. Ancient Negative Liberalism: 

Initial form of liberalism was negative. It regards the state as against the freedom of an individual. Its thought is that because of negative activities of a state, there is a decline in the freedom, equality and rights of an individual, and therefore, negative liberalism takes a state as necessary evil.

The eminent supporters of traditional liberalism are John Locke, Jeremy Bentham, J.S. Mill, Adam Smith, Ricardo, Herbert Spencer. Earlier, this liberalism was confined to the demand of constitutional safety to personal rights, but later on, liberalism emerged with the demand of religious freedom, tolerance, constitutional and political rights.

2. Modern / Positive Liberalism: 

The revised and changed version of traditional liberalism in 19th century is now called modern or positive liberalism. Its main supporters were various scholars, including T.H. Green, John Stuart Mill, Laski, Hob house, Maclver, etc. Positive liberalism considers that a state is a positive and welfare institution for the safety and development of the people. As per its doctrine, a state in not a necessary evil. State and a person are complementary to each other. Modern liberalism accepts that a state should perform a role of controlling and balancing the people’s mutual relations.

• Traditional liberalism. 
• Modern liberalism.

As per liberals, state is a man – made institution, created for the welfare of an individual.

Main principles of liberalism: 

Liberalism is a right to get freedom from slavery and restrictions, and also to work as per one’s discretion. 

The following are the main principles of liberalism: 

1. Faith in one’s rationality: 

In medieval period, a person’s life was dominated by uncontrolled impact of religion, blind faith and popal dictats, and there was oppression and torture in place of use of rationality to regulate one’s life. In religious domain, all directives of the church had to be followed. In royal domain, there was a strong control of tyrannical monarchy, and in social domain, conservative conventions filled with blind faith were rampant.

In this situation, soul of an individual and rationality was suppressed, because of which, an individual and the society were at loss. The end of medieval time came with the call of renaissance that a human being is a logical creature. According to liberals, all the decisions in all the fields of a person’s life should be taken with wisdom and rationality. Summarily, liberalism supports self contemplation.

2. Negation of historical traditions: 

The development of liberalism has taken place in the form of reaction against arbitrary and oppressive governance of state, church and Pope in medieval social system. According to liberals, a new society should be formed on the basis of application of wisdom and logic, by ending ancient historical and traditional basis.

3. Support to freedom of individual: 

Liberalism is based on the fundamental convention that a person is born free and freedom is a natural right of every person. In this way, he should be given full freedom in political, economical, social, intellectual and religious spheres.

4. Society and state are artificial institutions: 

Liberalism does not accept the state and society as a divine institution. According to it, these are artificial institutions. Formation of a state and its development is done by the people for fulfilling their necessities.

5. An individual is accomplishment and society and state are means: 

Liberalism accepts an individual as an accomplishment and the state as means. A person forms a society or a state for his own interests, and hence there can be no community, society or state, for which a human being can be sacrificed.

6. Supporter of natural rights of an individual: 

The supporters of liberalism have faith in the concept of natural rights of an individual. They deem certain rights for an individual as his natural rights since his birth. As per the notion of Locke, an individual has three main natural rights : life, right to wealth and right to freedom. A state carries the obligation to protect these rights.

7. Concept of an individual without a king: 

Liberal thinkers believe that a human being is naturally free and perfect. He is a master of his own will. Every individual has different aspects of personality. He can render good for the development of his personality and also for materialistic and spiritual welfare as per his own discretion.

8. Belief in administration of law and equality of persons: 

Liberalism has faith in equality of person and administration of law. It accepts that all persons should be deemed equal in the context of law and administration. They should not be discriminated against on the basis of caste, gender, religion or language, etc.

9. Recognition of idea of a secular state: 

Liberals propagate the idea of non – intervention of the state in context to religion. They also believe in religious freedom and tolerance. It is quite important for a state to be secular for the freedom of an individual.

10. Supporter of the principle of nationalism: 

It is a convention of liberals that the people of every state have moral and political right to launch struggle against foreign administration’s subordination. According to it, freedom of an individual can be preserved only when the administrator is of his consent and choice.

11. Support of administration of democratic system: 

Liberalism believes in peaceful and democratic changes and improvements in the society, in place of revolutionary changes.

12. Flexible outlook in relation to objects and duties of states: 

There has been a change in the outlook of liberals in respect to objects and duties of a state. In this context, their outlook can be put into two divisions:

• Traditional outlook 
• Modern outlook. Traditional liberalism supports a limited scope of a state, whereas modern outlook believes in the concept of public welfare state.

The following are the four main principles of liberalism: 

(1) An individual as an accomplishment and society or state as a means: 

According to liberalism, an individual is an accomplishment and society or state is the only means to develop the personality of an individual.

(2) Support for freedom of an individual: 

Liberals consider the concept that an individual is free since birth. He is the master of his own. Therefore, freedom is his natural and birth right. 

(3) Support of democratic system of administration: 

Liberals have faith in constitutional means. They do not believe in accomplishing any task forcefully. According to them, the basis of state governance or system should be public consensus. Application of any bondage on an individual should be as per his consent. 

(4) Recognition of views of a secular state: 

According to liberals, state should not interfere in the religious matters of its citizens. Religion is a matter of one’s faith and belief. A person should be free to follow any religion. There should not be any discrimination between the citizens on the basis of religion.

Reasons of development of modern liberalism: 

In the 19th century, liberal thinkers carried out amendments and changes in traditional liberalism in accordance with the demand of time. Modern liberalism in not a rejection of original liberalism. Instead, it is a new edition of fundamental liberalism in the context of socialist era. With the changes in the accomplishment of liberalism, its new methodologies were invented.

Its fundamental ideal was very much retained, that is, everywhere a free person, but the meaning of the ideal and its means of accomplishment changed. This new turn in liberalism came because of the challenges provided to it at political and philosophical levels. Orthodox Marxists and socialists kept on hinting at it.

And as a result, liberalism was compelled to take along democratic, nationalist and socialist sentiments after 1848. Among the main supporters and thinkers of modern liberalism, the names of John Stuart Mill, T.N. Green, L.T. Hobhouse, H.J. Laski and Maclver are the major ones in terms of their contribution and its development.

The supporters of modern liberalism do not assume the state to be a necessary evil. They regard a state as a positive and welfare institution for addressing people’s interests and their safety. They want to bring in social and economic improvements in the society by way of adopting constitutional, democratic and parliamentary methods, and it is also expected that the evil of illiteracy, poverty, epidemics, exploitation, etc.

spread’among citizens in the state will end and consistent efforts be made for the up liftment of people. Contrary to ancient liberalism, modern liberalism believes that a state should play a positive role in the context of regularization and balance of mutual relation of the people. Later, this modern liberalism did transform itself to the concept of welfare state.

Main Features of Modern Liberalism: 

The following are the main features of modern liberalism: 

1. A state is a moral and welfare institution. It is not a necessary evil. 

2. It has faith in public dominance and lawful administration. 

3. It is the responsibility of the state to ensure all – round development of all the citizens. 

4. Freedom and rights of the people are protected by the state. 

5. State should have inclusive control on the economy. 

6. The state should adopt constitutional and democratic methods for carrying out political, social, religious and economic changes. 

7. State’s rights are not unlimited. It should have certain appropriate control. 

8. An individual and the state are not mutually contrary, instead, they are supplementary to each other.

The purpose of these special days was to teach the children thoughtfulness,kindness to others, and how to be responsible citizens these days. It teaches the children how to appreciate and understand misfortune by making them share in the misfortune of others themselves.

• Faith in one’s rationality. 
• Support of democratic governance system.

B. originality

Society and state are means as per liberalism.

In order to make their children appreciate and understand misfortune, each term every child in the school had one blind day, one lame day, one deaf day, one injured day and one dumb day.