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International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry.

(iii) Solid CO₂ is known as dry ice.

The Latin name of Sodium is Natrium.

(iv) +4 oxidation state of Sn is more stable than +2 oxidation state. Therefore, Sn²⁺ can be easily oxidised to Sn⁴⁺ and hence SnCl₂ acts a reducing agent.
SnCl₂ + 2Cl → SnCl₄ + 2e^-

(ii) Quartz is a crystalline form of silica.

There are 118 known elements till date. 94 of these elements occur naturally while 24 elements have been created artificially in the laboratory.

1. When an atom combines with another atom (or atoms) and forms a compound it is called as molecule. 

2. A molecule is made up of two or more atoms chemically combined.

A compound is a pure substance that is formed when the atoms of two or more elements combine chemically in definite proportions. 

Example : H₂O, NaCl,

Atomicity is the total number of atoms present in one molecule of an element, compound or a substance.

A molecule of sulphuric acid (H₂SO₄ ) consists of 2 hydrogen atom, 1 Sulphur atom and 4 oxygen atoms. Hence its atomicity 2 + 1 + 4 = 7.

1. Elements are chemically the simplest substances and hence cannot be broken down using chemical reactions. 

2. It is made of entirely from one type of atom. 

3. Example : Hydrogen, Oxygen is made from atoms containing a single proton and a single electron.

The following rules are followed while assigning symbol to an elements: 

1. Chemical symbols usually consist of one or two letters.

2. The symbols of most elements correspond to the first letter (which is capitalized) of their English name. For example, the symbol for oxygen is “O” and that for hydrogen is “H”. 

3. When there is more than one element that begins with the same letter, their symbols take two letters. 

4. The first letter is capitalised while the second letter has a lower case. 

5. For example, the names of both hydrogen and helium begin with H. So, hydrogen is represented by the symbol H and Helium by He.

Example :

Number of kgs of potatoes to their price are in inverse proportion.

∴ x₁y₁ = x₂ y₂

⇒ 8 × 5 = 10 × x

⇒ x = (8×5)/10 = 4 kgs

∴ 4 kgs of potatoes will be purchased at the rate of ₹ 10 per kg.

Between any two places, the difference between the air pressure is called pressure gradient. Pressure/Barometric gradient is also called barometric slope.

The pattern of air pressure belts is not found to be the same. There is seasonal change in the air pressure belts due to the movements of the sun towards the south and the north, and due to the difference in nature of land and water, etc.

Winds move from the area of high air pressure towards the area of low air pressure.

Air pressure belts change according to the position of the sun. In the summer when the Sun is in the northern hemisphere, these belts shift by 5° latitude North and when the sun is in the southern hemisphere these belts shift by 5° latitude South.

At high mountain peaks the air become increasingly sparse and light. As a result, air pressure is greatly reduced. That is why a person uses oxygen cylinders and special suits while climbing high mountain peaks to balance their body’s internal pressure with the outer air pressure land to compensate for lack of oxygen.

Through the winds, the oceans provide humidity to the continents, making rainfall possible.

Distribution of air pressure belts is not equal every where. Daily and yearly changes occur in air pressure, due to factors such as the situation of the summer solstice and winter solstice of the sun, the difference in the nature of the land and the water. In the summer when the Sun is in the northern hemisphere, these belts shift from their average position towards 5° north, and in the winter, when the sun shines directly in the southern hemisphere, these belts shift from their average position to 5° southwards.

Their ideal condition is only on 21 March and 23 September, when the Sun is vertical on the equator. At the time of shift of air pressure belts, the equatorial linear belts get extended in the northern and southern hemisphere between 0° to 10° latitudes instead of 0° to 5° latitudes, according to the season. Similarly, the subtropical belts shift between 30° to 40° latitudes instead of 30° to 35° latitudes, while the sub – polar belt is found between 60° to 70° latitudes instead of 60° to 65° latitudes.

Due to the continental expansion in the polar regions, especially in the North Polar region, it has a greater effect as the polar belt becomes very narrow in summers here. In the southern polar region, due to narrowing of the land and ocean expansion, there is no special change found in them.

Due to the variation in the density of the air, temperature, the amount of water vapour and the gravitational power of the Earth, the rate of reduction of air pressure is not equal.

Elements of weather; like clouds, rain, storm, dust storm and wind are controlled only by air pressure.

The pressure in the atmosphere is not uniform everywhere, and all the time, it is controlled by atmospheric conditions. The air expands by getting more heat, which reduces the air pressure.

Correct Answer is: (c) Bur an

Pascal was the first to explain that air pressure decreases along with altitude in the atmosphere. The density of the lower layers of the atmosphere is high, because the air present above exerts pressure over here. As a result, both the density and pressure of air in the lower layers of the atmosphere is greater. On the contrary, the air of upper layers is less pressurized, so its density and pressure are both low.

That is why the air pressure always decreases along with elevation, but its rate of decline is not always the same. It depends on the density of the air, the amount of water vapor and the gravitational force of the Earth. Because of all these factors being variable, there is no direct proportional relationship between altitude and air pressure.

Even then, the average rate of decreasing air pressure in the troposphere is approximately 34 millibars at an altitude of 300 meters. At higher altitudes, the gases become more sparse and lighter in a rapid form. As a result, air pressure is greatly reduced. That is why a person uses oxygen cylinder and special suit while climbing high mountain peaks.

(a) Between 40° – 50° latitude in the Southern Hemisphere

(b) Westerlies

The trade winds have the following characteristics: 

1. These winds are dry and calm due to the winds descending down near the sub – tropical high air pressure. 

2. These winds absorb the water vapor from the water bodies as they proceed ahead. 

3. Reaching near the equator, these winds are almost saturated with water vapor. 

4. The trade winds of both the hemispheres collide with each other near the equator and rise up and cause heavy rainfall.

(d) January and July

Polar winds have the following characteristics: 

1. These winds move from polar regions towards sub-polar regions. 

2. In the northern hemisphere, the direction of these winds is from the north – east to the south – west and in the southern hemisphere, it is from south – east to north – west. 

3. These winds are extremely cold and dry due to blowing from cold polar regions. 

4. Due to low temperature, their ability to absorb water vapor is also low.

In ancient times, the sailing ships in the seas facilitated trade through these winds, hence they are called trade winds. These winds are known as the north-eastern trade winds in the northern hemisphere and as the south – eastern trade winds in the southern hemisphere.

(b) On the Equator

Due to the motion of the earth’s rotation, the winds get deflected. This is called the Coriolis force and the effect of this force is called the Coriolis effect. Due to this effect, the wind gets deflected towards its right in the northern hemisphere and towards its left in the southern hemisphere. This effect was proved by a scientist called Ferrel, so it is also called FerreTs law.

(a) Near the earth’s surface

Correct option is (b) Dr. Rajendra Prasad

Correct option is (b) 26 Jan, 1950

1. Illiteracy: More than 23 crore people of India are illiterate. Around 60 women out of 100 are illiterate. Illiteracy gives rise to unemployment which becomes a reason for poverty. An illiterate person hardly knows about the progression opportunities available in the country. Except this democratic system will become successful if people would be literate.

An illiterate person is unaware of his rights and duties as well.
Governmental Efforts: Indian Government is taking certain steps to remove illiteracy from the country :

• There is a provision in our Constitution to give free and compulsory education to children upto the age of 14 years.
• Indian government gives scholarships to poor and intelligent students.
• The Indian government has also started adult education in the country. National Adult Education Programme was started on 2nd October 1978 A.D. National Literacy Mission was started in 1988 A.D. Many Adult education centres were established under this mission.
• Many educational programmes, related to illiterate adults, are being broadcast on All India Radio and Doordarshan. Their main objective is to literate every person in the country.

2. Increasing Population: India is facing a problem of the increasing population these days. The speed of the increasing population in India is too much that it is very difficult to stop this speed by the government. According to the census of 2011 A.D., India’s population was 121.02 crores. Our population is increasing by lakhs every year.

Causes: There are certain reasons for increasing population in the country:

• The death rate is decreasing due to the improvement of medical facilities. About 25 years ago this death rate was 33 per thousand. But now it has been reduced to 9 per thousand. In earlier times, many diseases were there like the plague, malaria, etc. because of which thousands of people used to die. But now these diseases have been controlled to a great extent.
• Marriage is less age is one of the reasons for the increasing population. Many rural families used to prefer child marriages which result in the growth of the population.
• People don’t like to use family planning due to ignorance and religious reasons.
• Many poor people think that more children will help in an increase in the income of the family. That’s why parents like to give birth to more children.

Losses and solution: The increasing population is the basic reason for many problems like poverty, unemployment, etc. All the developmental plans become useless with the increasing population. These problems could be solved at a government level. People could be told about the losses of increasing population and government can propagate in favour of small family.

Indian government felt that small kingdoms would not be able to develop properly. That’s why they were included in the nearby states.

Areas of Goa, Daman and Deu were under Portuguese possession at the time of Indian independence. On 20th December 1961 A.D. they were included in Union of India.

India made an agreement with the Chinese Prime Minister Chau-in-lai in 1954 A.D. This agreement was based on five principles. These principles are given below :

1. To accept peaceful co-existence.
2. Not to attack each other.
3. Not to interfere in each other’s matter.
4. To obey the concept of equality and cooperation for mutual interests.
5. To respect mutual sovereignty and regional integrity.

Indian areas of Goa, Daman and Diu were under Portuguese possession. In the same way Pondicherrey, Chandranagar and Mahi were under French rule. French gave back Indian areas to India in 1954 A.D. but Portuguese refused to do so. In the end Indian government was forced to use military to take -possession of its areas. On 20th December 1961 A.D., Portuguese establishments of Goa, Daman and Diu were included in the Union of India. Goa was made a state on 30th May, 1987 A.D. and Damap and Diu were made Union territories.

Correct option is (d) All of these

Correct option is (b) Dr. B.R. Ambedkar

India is an active member of the U.N.O. (United Nations Organisation). India has sent its forces with peace keeping forces of U.N.O. in many disturbed areas of the world.

India has also contributed a lot in many institutions and agencies of U.N.O. For example Vijay Laxmi Pandit became the member of General Assembly of U.N.O. in 1963 A.D. Shashi Tharoor is the Under Secretary of Communication and Public Information of U.N.O. India is also a member of Security Council. India gets aid of U.N.O. every year as well.

Correct option is (a) Villages

Indians started to demand reorganize states on the basis of language and culture even during British rule. After independence, one Telugu person Ramulu demanded to reorganize states on linguistic basis, kept indefinite fast as and was died. So constitutional amendment took place and Telugu spoken areas were separated from Madras and was given the name of Andhra Pradesh. One commission with three members was appointed to reorganize other states. States were reorganized in Nov. 1956 on the basis of recommendations of commission. 14 states and 6 union territories were formed.

Correct option is (c) 1956