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Women were treated as being equal with men. They took part in all religious rites. Women were given education. Girls had freedom in the choice of husbands. Monogamy any polygamy both were popular. Child-marriage the sati system and purdah did not exist among the Aryans. The women attended all the social functions and gatherings. People prayed for the birth of sons in particular, but there are no clues of prayers for the birth of a daughter.

With reference to the given heads the social life of the Rig Vedic Aryans is described below: 

(a) The Family Structure: The basic unit of the social structure was the ‘family’. The joint family system was prevalent. Houses in this age, were built of wood or reed. The Rig Vedic society was patriarchal in which Grihyapati(master of the house) dominated in family and social life. 

(b) Position of Women: Women were given equal status to that of men in society. They were permitted to participate in all the religious rites. Gaining of education had not been restricted to them. There w’ere women scholars who composed hymns and were well-versed in the sacred scriptures. Girls could seek husbands of their own choice. Monogamy was in custom, but polygamy w’as also practiced by many. Child-marriage, the Sati system and Purdah did not exist among the Aryans, The w’omen attended all social functions and gatherings. The general tendency of people w’as to have male births rather than the females. They used to perform prayers seeking the birth of the male-child. But, in case of females, people had a repulsive attitude they did not like to have female-baby. 

(c) Varna System: One hymn in the last book of the Rig Veda refers to four orders of society — the Brahmins, the Kshatriyas, the Vaisyas and the The people w’ho explained the Vedic texts and performed the religious ceremonies were called the Brahmins. Those w’ho belonged to the ruling class, were the Kshatriyas. The common people, w’ho were engaged in agriculture, trade and industry were the Vaisyas. The Shudras were the menial workers who did not have much to ow’n. Scholars are of the opinion that the term ‘Varna’ in the Rig Veda, refers to the racial difference between the Aryans and non-Aryans. It is in this context that therferms Ary a Varna and Dasa Varna came into use. There was no ban on the taking of food cooked by Shudras and no restrictions on intermarriages or change of occupation.

With reference to the given headings, the economic life of the Rig Vedic Aryans is explained as follows: 

(a) Agriculture: The Rig Vedic Aryans were mainly scattered in villages. They frequently prayed for plentiful rain and bountiful harvest, large herds of cattle and good health. It shows that agriculture was an important occupation of the village folk. However, the only grain referred to in the Rig Veda is Yava which could mean grain in general or barley in particular. 

(b) Domestication of Animals: The Rig Vedic Aryans had mainly a pastoral economy. Cattle formed an important item of dona (gifts) made to the priests. The word Gomat was used to signify a wealthy person. It meant the one who possessed many cattle, especially the cows and bulls. Other domesticated animals were the ox, the horse, the dog, the goat and the sheep. 

(c) Trade Transactions, Crafts and Transportation: The people were engaged in trade, cloth and leather goods being the main items. The barter system practiced for trade transactions. The cow was the standard unit of value. Men and women were engaged in weaving cloth. The metal-workers or the smiths were skilled in making weapons, implements and ornaments. The metal ayas mentioned in the Rig Veda is generally taken to mean copper or bronze, although it has been understood as iron also. They used horses and bullocks for carrying goods from place to place. They also transported goods through the inland rivers

(a) Aryas-expansion during the later Vedic age: As the population increased, the Aryans moved along the course of the river Ganga and Yamuna. The scene shifted from Punjab to the land of the Kurus which was the region round dem Delhi. Further, they occupied vast regions to the east, such as Kosala (east Uttar Pradesh), Kashi (Varanasi), Videha (north Bihar) and Magadha (south Bihar). The name ‘ Vangas’ occurs in one of the Aranyakas (forest texts), which refers to the people of Eastern Bengal. The Aitareya Brahmana mentioned the Andhra, who in modern times are the Telugu-speaking people of the southern India. Thus, the territories occupied by the later Vedic Aryans, comprised the whole of India to the north of the Narmada and some regions even to the south of that river. 

(b) In context of the use of Iron extensively during the later Vedic Age, the given headlines are described as under:The regions in which the use of Iron was fairly widespread during the later Vedic Age, they were the modem States of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, parts of Bengal, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. Iron weapons such as arrowheads and spearheads and tools like— knives, axes and plough shares have been discovered from various painted Grey Ware sites. But in some parts of the country, the Red Ware (pottery) were more common than the Polished Grey Ware.

Sacrifice became the most important part of the religion – of the later Vedic Aryans. The ceremonies could be performed only by professional priests, many superstitious beliefs in spirits, spells and charms became part of their religion. Practice of Tapasya or penance occupied an important place in the religion. They believed in the principles of Karma (action) and Moksha (salvation).

The Bhagavad Gita lays down stress on keep oneself doing hard work in the long run in respect of seeking any advantage out of it as it is the will of God to bestow his servant with the reward that he deserves. Also, it teaches; Let you not scare the Death as it is the physical body which dies but the Soul is immortal.

The two Epics are the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. The Ramayana was written by the sage Valmiki and the Mahabharata is believed to be the work of Ved Vyasa.

Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva. Lord Rama and Lord Krishna became popular deities during- the Epic period. Durga, Kali and Parvati emerged as the important female deities.

In the later Vedic period, the simple religious practices became complicated and ritualistic which were varied handled by the priests themselves as they had a vast knowledge of enchanting mantras in a meaningful manner to perform the holy rituals for a purpose, wish or some other reason. Hence, the priestly class was always given a prominent position in society in the later Vedic period.

Megalithic Monuments such as dolmens and cromlechs have been found all over South India. The word ‘megalith’ means large stone (mega + lith). A dolmen or a cromlech is a megalithic tomb with a large -flat stone laid on upright ones. Iron tools, arrows and fragments of rice and other grains have been found, besides the skeletons of the persons buried in these graves. This is enough to show the transition from Copper and Bronze Age Culture to the Iron Age.

With reference to the given heads the social changes evident in the later Vedic period are described as under: 

(a) Position of Women: The honor or respect that the women of the Rig Vedic age had enjoyed had been lessened towards the later Vedic age. Although they continued to be associated with all religious rites, the rules of marriage underment a change. If monogamy was the ideal, polygamy was practiced, at least in higher sections of society. Widow-marriage, which was fairly common in the Rig Vedic age, was now regarded with disfavor. But the education which some women received, was of high order. The discourses of women philosophers are preserved in the 

(b) Caste System: The Brahmins and Kshatriyas enjoyed powers and privileges denied to the Vaisyas and the By this time, besides the four major Varnas, many other caste groups had come into being like — the merchants, the chariot-makers, the smiths, the carpenters, the tanners, the fishermen etc. Membership of a caste had become hereditary’ and there was also a fixation of occupation on the basis of one’s caste-grouping. The so-called untouchables were forced to live in separate settlements outside the village or the town boundaries.

In context of the marked change in the economic life of the Aryans, the given headlines are described as follows: 

(a) The growing importance of Agriculture: Rearing of cattle and other domestic animals continued, but it was now less important than agriculture. In addition to Yava or barley, a new crop Vrihi or rice,had assumed greater significance. Fragments of both barley and rice have been found at Hastinapur and other place. The later Vedic Aryans produced many other crops such as wheat millet and sugarcane. 

(b) Variety of Crafts: Different kinds of crafts had been introduced. The main reason behind it, could be the use of iron in large quantities. Iron weapons and tools have been recovered from various Painted Grey Ware or Black and Red Ware Sites. Crafts, such as pottery, leather working, carpentry, making of jewelry and the manufacture of glass also flourished. Crafts specialization had now become more common that, in early Vedic period. Thus, chariot-making developed as an occupation different from that of carpentry. 

(c) Change in the field of Trade and Commerce: Important changes can be noticed in the field of trade and commerce. Commerce was made easier by the use of such units of value as nishka and satmana. The reference to ships, indicates a flourishing in land maritime trade. A class of hereditary merchants (Vanija) existed now. Many of the professions were organised into guilds, which in later ages, controlled prices and ensured the quantity of the goods.

Spiritual Philosophy of the Upanishads: 

Towards the end of the later Vedic phase, a new trend is visible. The Upanishads do not deal with rituals or sacrifices. They deal with the higher knowledge and explain the relationship between Jeeva (individual soul) and Brahma (Supreme Soul or God). A major concept of the Upanishads is “the essential unity of all religions, of all spiritual paths.” The Truth is One, the wise call it by many names.

The two reasons of growing of Magadha into a powerful kingdom around 600 BC. were as follow: 

1. The fertile plains brought about prosperity and consolidation to the Magadha kingdom. 

2. Discovery of Iron in large quantities in Chota Nagpur and the hilly regions of Magadha.

The first Tirthankaras was ‘Risabit known as Adi Nath. The last two Tirathankaras were ‘Parashvanath’ and ‘Mahavira’.

The two teachings of Mahavira are: 

1. Ahimsa. 

2. No Belief in God.

Since Vardhamana became popular with the name of Mahavira (the great hero) or Jina (the conqueror of self), therefore, his followers were called Janis.

Vardhamana renounced all wordy pleasures. At the age of thirteen, he became an ascetic and attained the true knowledge (Kevala Jnana), therefore he come to be known as Mahavira.

The “Four Great Sights” of Buddhism were: 

1. The sight of an old man. 

2. A sick man. 

3. A dead body. 

4. An ascetic.

The purpose of a Stupa was to commemorate a sacred spot or a particular event, or to enshrine the relics of Buddha or those of Buddhist saint.

When Gautama got enlightened with the spiritual knowledge after rigorous meditation, he came to be known as the Buddha or the Enlightened One.

The urge for finding a solution to the problems of human suffering and death, made Buddha broke all his wordy ties and left his place at the age of 29 as an ascetic in search of truth. This event came to be known as the Great Renunciation (Maha Parityaga).

Select any four points from the Eight-Fold Path in Buddhism: 

1. Right Faith 

2. Right Aspiration 

3. Right Action 

4. Right Speech 

5. Right Meditation 

6. Right Living 

7. Right Effort 

8. Right Contemplation

The “Four Noble Truths” of Buddhism are: 

1. The world is full of sorrows and suffering. 

2. The main cause of suffering is man’s desire (Trishna) for sensual pleasures and earthly possession. 

3. Suffering can be removed by getting rid of desires, i. e., renunciation. 

4. One can overcome desires by following the Eight-Fold Path.

Literary Sources: 

1. The Jataka Tales, The Tripitakas. 

2. Archaeological Sources: The Great Stupa at Sanchi, Samath Pillar.

The Buddhist ideals even today have a significant place in our life. The principles of equality, teachings of non-violence and individual purification are still working as usual. Evils, such as pride, envy, wrath and lust have no place in our life even today. Mahatma Gandhi took a leaf from the Buddha’s life when he said, “non-violence is the first article of my faith.” He also said, “religion in the sense of peace, fraternity and all-embracing love can alone be the basis of the existence of the world.”

The Jatakas’ tales throw light on the social and political conditions of the people in the 3rd and 4th centuries BC. The most important thing about the Jatakas’ tales is that they deal with the previous births of the Buddha.

The Jainism and Buddhism badly sabotaged the Caste System that had been prevailing during that time. The common mass got very much attracted to these religions, who accepted all the followers worship altogether without any caste-distinction. Both the religions united the people in society who had been divided before, over caste and creed-issues.

The Mahayana Buddhism insisted on worshiping the images of Buddha and prayed for forgiveness of sins and for salvation. The Mahayana Buddhism adopted Sanskrit for the writing of their scriptural texts. The Hinayana Buddhism had no faith in idol-worship. Buddha was represented only in symbols such as a pair of foot-prints or an empty seat.

Two features of the Brahmanical faith of the 6th Century BC which the Buddha opposed were: 

1. Buddha condemned all forms of sacrifices that were conducted by the Brahmans during the 6th Century BC. 

2. Buddha discarded the complicated Sanskrit language of Vedic scriptures which was unintelligible to the ordinary people

The Viharas possess semicircular arches resting on pillars surrounded by figures of animals. Some of these caves have two stores and some consist of a row of cells for the monks with an opening into a courtyard.

The Lion-Capital of the Sarnath Pillar is chiseled out of single block of stone. The figure of the four lions has been used on the Indian currency and the wheel is shown in our National Flag.

The ‘Karma theory’ and ‘Nirvana’ are the two features of the Brahmanical faith of the 6th Century BC which were accepted by the Buddha.

The Ashokan pillars are made out of stone. All these pillars are monolithic i.e., they are carved out of one piece of stone. Each pillar weighs about 50 tons. At the top of, each such pillar is the capital which is also monolithic.

The density of a population in a given habitat during a given period fluctuates due to changes in four basic processes, viz.

1. Natality i.e. birth rate (The number of births during a given period in the population that are added to the initial density). 

2. Mortality i.e. death rate (The number of deaths in the population during a given period). 

3. Immigration i.e. number of individuals of the same species that have come into the habitat from elsewhere during the time period under consideration. 

4. Emigration i.e. the number of individuals of the population who left the habitat and gone elsewhere during the time period under consideration. 

5. Natality and immigration increase in population density whereas mortality and emigration decrease it.

Organisms which cannot migrate tend to overcome adverse environmental conditions by developing several methods/features. 

For example: some vertebrates escape the stress caused by unfavourable environmental conditions by escaping in time like bears go into hibernation during the winter months. In angiosperms, seeds and some other vegetative reproductive structures serve as means to tide over periods of stress. They reduce their metabolic activity and go into an inactive, i.e., ‘dormant’ state. They germinate to form new plant when the favourable conditions return.

1. Predators keep prey population under control. If predators are lacking from the ecosystem, the prey population will rise without any control. Their high density may cause instability in ecosystem. 

2. Predators also help in maintaining the species diversity in a community. This is done by reducing the intensity of competition among competing prey species. 

3. Predators control the pest species and thus can be used for natural biological control measures in an ecosystem. 

E.g. frog controlling the locust population. 

4. Predators also control the invading exotic species and stop their rapid spread of such species.