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We can classify the Constitutional amendments made so far into 3: 

1. Technical or Administrative amendments. 

2. Different interpretations. 

3. Amendments through political adjustment and cooperation.

Apart from these, there have also been amendments of controversial nature.

State Assemblies, President, Parliament

The President of India. 

c. Productivity - Resources must be used keeping in mind the future

Greek city-states are the examples if Direct Democracy

Supreme Court. 

The 42^th amendment passed by the Indian Parliament in 1976 is called ‘the little Constitution’. Many articles of the Constitution were amended. These changes were brought to overcome the Supreme Court order in the Kesavananda case. Some controls were brought in the powers of the Judiciary. Fundamental duties were added. In the Preamble, the words Secularism and Socialism were added. The life of the Parliament was raised from 6 years from 5 years. In short 42^nd amendment was made for the Emergency declared in 1975.

Rajya Sabha.

b) Nomadic herding

The constitution as a whole came into force with effect from January 26, 1950. 

1. Jean Bodin – who was the first to explained the concept of sovereignty said “Sovereignty is the supreme power over citizens and subjects unrestrained by law.” 

Characteristics of Sovereignty:

a. Permanent: Sovereignty is permanent. Every state is sovereign it is accordingly permanent. The death of the rules or the change in government doesn’t mean any change in sovereign power. It comes to an end when the state is destroyed or is conquered and ruled by some external power.

b. Universality: Sovereignty embraces each and every person and every association within the territory of the state. No individual or association in the state can disobey the sovereign authority of the state.

c. Sovereignty can’t be transferred: The state has no right to give away its sovereignty. When a state loses or has to give up a part of the territory and population to another state, that part comes under the control of that state.

d. Indivisible: Sovereignty can’t be divided. Division of sovereignty leads to destruction of sovereignty. 

e. Absoluteness: Sovereignty is absolute. There can be no legal power within the state superior to it. All individuals, associations come under the absolute power of the state. The state is completely independent.

The president of india promulgates ordivances

A government where only one person or group run the administration is called dictatorial ’Government. 

Vice – President is the Ex-officio chairmen of Rajya Sabha.

To conduct the proceedinge of the house 1/10^th of the attendence is essential. It is called quorum

A.K. Antony, Vayalar Ravi, E. Ahmed, JK.C. Venugopal, K.V. Thomas, and Mullappally Ramachandran.

• Must be a citizen of India. 
• Should have attainde the age of 35 years. 
• Must not be a member of either house of legislature

• Nominal Executive and Real Executive 
• Single Executive and Plural Executive 
• Parliamentary System and Presidential System 
• Political and Permanent Executives 
• Hereditary, Elected and Nominated Executives.

There are 24 High Courts in India.

Dr. B.R Ambedkar.

Diarchy is Dual government.

Anti defection law came into existence on 1^st April 1985.

Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru was the Vice President of the Viceroy’s Executive council.

Supreme court is the apex court. 

There are 21 high courts are there in India. 

Depending on the number of people at the head of the administration of the nation, Executive can be of two kinds – single member and multi-member executive. When the executive administration is vested in one person, it is single-member executive. 

E.g. America. 

When the executive administration is vested in more than one person equally, it is a multi-member executive. 

E.g. Switzerland.

President is the  Head of the Indian  Republic.

The State Executive consists of the Governor, Chief Minister, and Ministers.

The subject matter of political science is state and government. 

1. Moral Rights 

2. Legal Rights. 

3. Civil Rights. 

4. Political Rights. 

5. Economic Rights.

• Moral Rights: are those which based on the ethical code of morality of people. 
• Legal Rights: are recognised and protected by the state. 
• civil rights: are those rights which enable the individual to lead a normal life in society. 
• Political rights: enable a citizen to take part in the affairs of the government. 
• Economic rights: enable citizens to earn their living. 

It is one that is free from legislative and executive control.

GV. Mavlankar Who is the first Speaker in India.

The success of a government depends on the efficiency of its bureaucracy. The Civil Service has many duties to perform Civil Service Functions: 

These can be divided into 4: 

a) In the matters of administration, Civil Services have a responsibility to the people. Ruling does not happen in a vacuum. Government officers have responsibility to the Legislature and the public. In fact, government officials are the servants of the public. 

b) Civil Service makes its own policy for smooth working. In fact, policy formation takes place in the Cabinet. It will have the approval of the Assembly. But the details regarding their practical implementation are left in the hands of the Civil Service. 

c) Theoretically, the power of delegated legislation given to the Executive comes to the Civil Service. Thus Civil Service gives flesh and blood to the laws passed by the Legislature. The Ministers and members of the legislature may not be experts in the laws. Therefore the Civil Service gives expert advice at every stage of lawmaking. 

d) Civil Service has the entire responsibility of carrying out the laws. Once a policy is formed and the Legislature makes a Law and it is approved by the Executive, the Civil Service has the duty to carry it out in actual practice.

Aristotle said, man, is a social animal because man can fulfill his basic desires, needs, requirements and protect himself. He cannot live all alone himself and he is not self-sufficient and selfreliant.

Jean Bodin – who was the first to explain the concept of sovereignty said “Sovereignty is the supreme power over citizens and subjects unrestrained by law.” 

According to Hugo Grotius “Sovereignty is the supreme power vested in him whose acts are not subjected to any other whose will can’t be can override.” 

Characteristics of Sovereignty:

a. Permanent: Sovereignty is permanent. Every state is sovereign it is accordingly permanent. The death of the rules or the change in government doesn’t mean any change in sovereign power. It comes to an end when the state is destroyed or is conquered and ruled by some external power.

b. Universality: Sovereignty embraces each and every person and every association within the territory of the state. No individual or association in the state can disobey the sovereign authority of the state.

c. Sovereignty can’t be transfered: The state has no right to give away its sovereignty. When a state loses or has to give up a part of the territory and population to another state, that part comes under the control of that state.

d. Indivisible: Sovereignty can’t be divided. Division of sovereignty leads to destruction of sovereignty.

f. Absoluteness: Sovereignty is absolute. There can be no legal power within the state, superior to it. All individuals, associations come under the absolute power of the state. The state is completely independent.

• Under article 352 National emergency. 
• Under article 356 state emergency. 
• Under article 360 financial emergency.

Given:

M₁ = 15, D₁ = 330 days

M₂ = 15 + 15 = 30

Concept used:

Total work = Number of men × Total number of days

Calculation:

Let x more days to complete the remaining work after 220 days.

Total work = Number of men × Total number of days

Total work = M1 × D1 

Total work = 15 × 330

Total work = 4950

Work completed after 220 days = 15 × 220

Required work = 3300

Remaining work = Total work – Work completed after 220 days

⇒ Remaining work = 4950 – 3300

⇒ Remaining work = 1650

Remaining work = M2 × x

⇒ 1650 = 30 × x

⇒ x = 55

∴ 55 more days the work will be completed.

The correct answer is More than 100 workers.

Applicability of the Industrial Establishment (Standing Order) Act

• The act applies to the Industrial establishment (within India) with and engagement of more than 100 workmen at present or as noted on any day in the preceding year.

• Industrial Establishment doesn’t include employees engaged in a managerial or administrative or supervisory capacity.
• Also, Defense Services are excluded from it.
• Other services covered are transport services, construction, Mine, Plantation, Workshop, etc.

 Important Features of Industrial Establishment (Standing Orders) Act

• It applies to the Industrial establishment (within India) with an engagement of more than 100 workmen at present or as noted on any day in the preceding year.
• Here Industrial Establishment covers those specified in

1. Payment of Wages Act.
2. Factories Act of 1948.
3. Employee contractors.
4. Industrial dispute Act.
5. Railway Industry.

• Industrial Establishment doesn’t include employees engaged in a managerial or administrative or supervisory capacity.
• Also, Defense Services are excluded from it.
• Other services covered are transport services, construction, Mine, Plantation, Workshop, etc.
• It is mandatory for every employer covered under this act to get standing orders certified by submitting five draft copies of the standing orders to the certifying officer.
• A certifying officer means Labour Commissioner or a regional labour commissioner or any other officer appointed by the government to perform the function of the certifying officer.
• Standing orders include Workmen classification, Attendance, Condition of termination, Means of grievance redressed.
• Standing order finally certified by the certifying officer cannot be changed except by an agreement between employers and workers and after expiry of six months from the previous standing order.
• Any aggrieved party may appeal to the ‘appellate authority’ within 30 days, provided that its decision shall be final.
• The appellate authority shall thereafter send copies of the standing order, if amended, to related parties within seven days.
• Any question relating to the applicability or interpretation of this act may be referred to the Labour Courts constituted for this purpose, whose decision shall be final and binding on all parties.

The success of a government depends on the efficiency of its bureaucracy. The Civil Service has many duties to perform Civil Service Functions: 

These can be divided into 4: 

a) In the matters of administration, Civil Services have a responsibility to the people. Ruling does not happen in a vacuum. Government officers have responsibility to the Legislature and the public. In fact, government officials are the servants of the public. 

b) Civil Service makes its own policy for smooth working. In fact, policy formation takes place in the Cabinet. It will have the approval of the Assembly. But the details regarding their practical implementation are left in the hands of the Civil Service. 

c) Theoretically, the power of delegated legislation given to the Executive comes to the Civil Service. Thus Civil Service gives flesh and blood to the laws passed by the Legislature. The Ministers and members of the legislature may not be experts in the laws. Therefore the Civil Service gives expert advice at every stage of lawmaking. 

d) Civil Service has the entire responsibility of carrying out the laws. Once a policy is formed and the Legislature makes a Law and it is approved by the Executive, the Civil Service has the duty to carry it out in actual practice.

Two aspects of Sovereignty are Internal and External Sovereignty.

1. Aristotle described political science as a ‘master science’ which made it perhaps the greatest contribution to the making of political science scientific. Hie term “Scope” refers to the subject or the boundaries of a particular branch of knowledge.

There is no perfect agreement among the political thinkers as to the problems, which come under the study of political science. Broadly speaking, there are three groups of writers holding different views on the scope of political science. 

2. The first group of writers like Garies, Gamer, Goodnow, and Bluntschli restricted the scope of political science only to the study of the state.

3. The second groups of writers like Prof. Sheley and Dr. Stephen Leacock said that political science deals with government only.

4. The third groups of writers like Gettell, Gilchrist, Paul Janet, and Prof. Laski maintained that the scope of political science extends to both state and government. Prof. Laski maintains that the state, in reality, means the government.

5. We may agree with the third group of writers that political science is a study of both state and government is the steering wheel of the ship of the state. There can be no state without a government, the state remains the central subject of our study, and the whole mechanism of government revolves around it. 

6. Scope according to the UNESCO; the international Political Science Association at its Paris Conference in 1948 discussed the scope of political science and marked out its subject matter as follows:

1. Political Theory: Political Theory, History of Political Ideas.

2. Government: The Constitution, the Government-Regional and Local Government, Public Administration, Economic and Social functions of government, Comparative political institutions.

3. Parties, Groups and Public Opinion: Political Parties, Group and Associations, Citizen Participation in Government and administration, Public Opinion.

4. International Relations: International relations, International organization and Administration, International Law. 

The correct answer is All of the above.

• A Certifying Officer means a Labour Commissioner or a regional labour commissioner or any other officer appointed by the government to perform the function of the certifying officer.
• It is mandatory for every employer covered under this act to get standing orders certified by submitting five draft copies of the standing orders to the certifying officer.

 Important Features of Industrial Establishment (Standing Orders) Act

• It applies to the Industrial establishment (within India) with an engagement of more than 100 workmen at present or as noted on any day in the preceding year.
• Here Industrial Establishment covers those specified in

1. Payment of Wages Act.
2. Factories Act of 1948.
3. Employee contractors.
4. Industrial dispute Act.
5. Railway Industry.

• Industrial Establishment doesn’t include employees engaged in a managerial or administrative or supervisory capacity.
• Also, Defense Services are excluded from it.
• Other services covered are transport services, construction, Mine, Plantation, Workshop, etc.
• It is mandatory for every employer covered under this act to get standing orders certified by submitting five draft copies of the standing orders to the certifying officer.
• A certifying officer means Labour Commissioner or a regional labour commissioner or any other officer appointed by the government to perform the function of the certifying officer.
• Standing orders include Workmen classification, Attendance, Condition of termination, Means of grievance redressed.
• Standing order finally certified by the certifying officer cannot be changed except by an agreement between employers and workers and after the expiry of six months from the previous standing order.
• Any aggrieved party may appeal to the ‘appellate authority’ within 30 days, provided that its decision shall be final.
• The appellate authority shall thereafter send copies of the standing order, if amended, to related parties within seven days.
• Any question relating to the applicability or interpretation of this act may be referred to the Labour Courts constituted for this purpose, whose decision shall be final and binding on all parties.

• He must be a citizen of India.
• He must not be less than 25 years of age. 
• Must be eligible as voters. 
• Must process any other qualification as may be prescribed by parliament.

• Natural Liberty. 
• Civil Liberty. 
• Political Liberty. 
• Economic Liberty. 

The administrative units which have been formed by the statutory law to meet the local needs fastly at the local level are called local self governments. 

Correct answer is b) 63^rd 

President: 

• Fixed period 
• Elected by an Electoral College 
• Calls meetings of both Houses of the Parliament 
• Takes oath before the Chief Justice of India 
• Appoints the Prime Minister 
• Should be eligible to be a member of the Lok Sabha 

Vice President: 

• Ex-officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha 
• Will continue in office till the successor joins the post. 
• Chosen by the MP’s