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James G Frazer considered Religion as a belief in power superior to man which are believed to direct and control the course of nature and Human life.

Elements of Religion:

Supernatural and the Sacred: At the centre of almost every religion lies the idea of the supernatural. It is something beyond physical understanding. It is omnipotent infinite or extraordinary. According to E. B. Tylor Belief in supernatural begins is called religion.

Belief in the supernatural begins might also include belief in other kinds of begins like magic forces, angles or soul of dead ancestors, believers might arrange the supernatural begins in a hierarchy according to their power or they may differentiate the supernatural begins in terms of their functions. It should be interesting to note that Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva, the three Hindu Gods, are said to perform the function of creation of the cosmic order, its maintenance and destruction, respectively.

Beliefs and practice: Religious belief is a system of knowledge about the divine and its relationship with the human. It is simply not enough to believe in the existence of a supernatural force. The knowledge of its existence must be explained to people and to generations to come. Belief serves this purpose of revealing the existence of the supernatural or divine or the sacred. Belief explains the nature of the divine.

Provides Moral Prescriptions: Religion is the source of moral values, and religion without moral prescription is virtually not possible. Religion can distinguish between the right and the wrong, more powerful than other social institutions.

Methods of Salvation: Methods of salvation constitutes another elements of Religion. If may be in various forms like attaining moksha, Nirvana, Salvation, and the Christian has a redeemer in Christ, the son of God, who gave his life for man’s Sin. In short religion is the institutionalized set of beliefs men hold about super natural forces belief are formalized and regularized.

Population is caused by many factors among which the following may be noted: 

Abuse of Nature by man for his Greed: Of all the living organisms it is only man who is causing pollution. Man’s attempts to use natural resources for genuine purposes are not problematic; but their greed by him, is causing this problem. According Write “human greed and ignorance have allowed our culture to develop an ecological crisis like pollution”.

Population Explosion Hastening the process of Pollution: If we keenly observe the consistent increase in the human population we come to believe that the role of population explosion is the most dominant cause of environmental pollution. According South wick- human population explosion is the main cause of pollution.

Uncontrolled Technology: Modem age places high premium on science and technology. Cores of rupees are being spent for the advancement of these two. But unfortunately, every technological advance is accompanied by some unwanted, unintended and unhappy consequences. We have failed to establish any comprehensive social control over technological development or use. This is because of the fact that in well developed countries, citizen consumes more food, use more fertilizer and pesticides, fuel, minerals, automobiles and other manufactured products of all kinds.

Unplanned and Imbalanced Industrialization: Increasing and controlled industrialization is the greatest contributor to pollution. Hence industrialized countries are mainly responsible for the environment pollution, the worst pollution occurs in countries where there have .been the greatest scientific, technological and industrial advances. Developing countries such as India, Thailand, Philippines and others have been caught in the spiral of industrial growth.

Thoughtless burning of agricultural wastes and destruction of forests can cause pollution: Rich industrialized countries are not only culprits in causing pollution. Recent investigations indicate that tropical grassland fires and the burning of agricultural wastes contribute almost as much pollution as do factories all over the world. There are 2000 million hectares of burnable land in the world in the form of cultivation land, permanent meadows and pastures.

Excess of Consumerism: Our changing attitudes and tendencies are also partially responsible for environmental pollution. We are.more and more leaning towards worldliness, luxuries and pleasure-seeking. We want to purchase and possess more and more luxury items like separate cars, mobiles, computers, iphones, air conditioners, air coolers, dozens of pair of dresses furniture of most modem styles, and so on. This tendency or craziness towards more and more purchases is often called ‘consumerism’.

According to Robert Bierstedt “ Culture is the Complex whole that consists of everything we think and do and have as members of society.

Characteristics of culture are:

1. Culture is learnt: Culture is often understood as learned ways of behaviors. Culture is not an inborn tendency. It is acquired or learnt. It includes those learned patterns for thinking, feeling and acting that are transmitted from one generation to the next. Therefore what is learned through socialization and are acquired in group life are what is called culture.

2. Culture is Social: Culture is not the property of any individual. It is the social heritage of man. It is a way of group life. It originates in and develops through social interaction. It consists of a number of behavior patterns that are common to a group of people. It is the inclusive of all expectation of the members of the groups. Thus culture is a social products shared by most of the members of the group.

3. Culture is Shared: Culture is a social property. It belongs to the group. The elements of culture such as customs beliefs, idea, folkways, mores, and language are all belonged to the people of a group. These are commonly shared by the members of a group. So culture is the product of groups life. Culture cannot be hidden and used by one individual. According to Robert Bierstadt. “Culture is something adopted, used believed, practiced or possessed by more than one person”.

4. Culture is Transmissive: Culture is the total social heritage. It is linked with the past. The past continues because it lives in culture. Culture is something that can be transmitted from one generation to the next. Culture is passed through language. Language is the chief vehicles of culture. Culture is also passed from one generation to another through traditions and customs. It is a product of human experience. 

5. Culture is Relative: All societies are not uniform. Hence all culture are also not uniform. They are vary and differ from time to time and place to place. There may be common elements such as customs, mores, folkways, art forms, dietary habits, value systems, institutions etc,, may be seen everywhere culture is also related to time. It varies from time to time. History of every society is the history of change in culture from time to time.

6. Culture is Dynamic: Culture is not a static phenomena. It is a Dynamic entity. Changes in society implies changes in its culture. Culture simply means away of life. It is nothing but a total “design for living”. Factors like inventions, problems, plans and policies etc. have a drastic effect on culture. As society changes a new way of life in evolved and adopted to adjust with the changing circumstances. Every factor that during changes in society will also being changes in the culture. Thus culture is dynamic.

7. Culture is Gratifying: Culture is the pilot of every human activity. Culture provides the necessary environment for the satisfaction of human wants. It shows the way for getting the work done. Culture determines and guides the activities of men.

8. Culture is continuous and cumulative: Culture is an growing phenomenon. It includes the glory of the past and the achievements present. Eg: Bullock carts, train, Aero planes etc., achievements. It is always cumulative.

9. Culture is Idea national: It is not merely material and non material culture. One cannot confine the culture as an objects which satisfies different goals of life. The members of society provides a psychological meanings to their own cultural traits. They attach the sentiments to their cultural elements. In this regard Herbert Spencer considers culture is neither organic, nor inorganic but it is super organic. It is commonly witnessed that people never tolerate any condemnation of their culture.

The institutions are born out of necessity to serve some cause – economic, social, cultural, political or military. The people behind its organisation have some objects. Self-help groups are voluntary organisations formed and managed by some members themselves. Self-help group is social and economical institution. Consists of 10 to 20 members. The aims are;

• Regularly save the amount from out of their earnings. 
• Collectively agree to contribute to a common fund. 
• Meeting their emergency needs. 
• Taking democratic decisions. 
• Resolving conflicts through discussion in open forum and 
• Providing surety free loans at market driven rates to members.

SHG can achieve the following goals

• Institutional development at the grassroots level. 
• economic independence to the poor especially poor women. 
• generation of mutual trust and cooperation 
• localised planning and participative decision-making 
• Financial discipline 
• inculcate habit of savings 
• leadership development 
• economic self-reliance and social solidarity Income generating activities of SHGs are:

Agriculture related (activity-seed multiplication, bee-keeping, nursery raising etc.)

Small retail business/general stores, brick making, livestock development, animal husbandry, poultry, piggery etc. Cattle feed sales, bicycle repair, milk production and processing, clay-pot i A. making, leaf/paper plate making, flour mill and grain shop, carpentry, iron samthing, welding, garment shop, tailoring, knitting, embroidery, raw sugar making, beauty saloon, fruit/vegetable preservation and processing, motor winding etc. Loans can be availed for the above activities. iA,_ With the self-help group association and cooperative society, can further add to the income of members.

Marriage is more or less a universal institution. 

The next most important agency of socialization is the peer group. The peer group consists of his age mates, payments, status mates, those who form the inner circle of friends, class mates, workmates etc., who share almost the status with the child. They serve an important function in defining appropriate behavior, acquiring appropriate roles, setting standards of conduct, arriving at a level of personal independence and inculcating goals. 

The child acquires something from his friends and playmates which he cannot acquires cooperative morality and some of – the informal aspects of culture like fashions, fads, crazes, modes of gratification etc. the peer group also provides opportunities to explore tabooed topics. For instance, most of the sex knowledge in early stage, rightly or wrongly, comes from one’s peer group.

According to M. E. Jones “Social change is a term used to describe variations in our modification of, any aspect of social progress, social patterns, social interactions or social organization” The various factors of social change

In all societies there are several conditions or causes that make for social change. These conditions are understood as factors. The change may occur internally. All the factors which bring change in society naturally or change comes from within society is known as intrinsic change.

Natural factor or Geographical factors: 

Change brought by natural conditions or change brought by environment is called as physical factor or geographical factors. Man and society exist within the environment. Whenever change occur in environment it brings change in society too.

Aecording to Ian Robertson, relationship between social and environmental factors bring change in society. We find less change in polar region. More on banks of river. When society grows complex. It brings more loss on geographical factors. Civilization brings convenience to man but develops controversies with environment. Recently because of technological and scientific developments we find less influence of physical factor. Growth of culture and civilization minimize the influence of geography.

Biological factor: It indicates two types A) One is non human biological factor and B) Second is human biological factor. It is true that both constitute total life on earth. Mclver and page are the opinion that demographic or biological factors involves l)size of population 2) structure of population 3) Heredity 4) race 5) Birth rate 6)Death rate 7) fertility 8) sex ratio

Six of population: People are assets, without men and women this society is useless. But the size of population is to balanced. We know that according to Malthus, more population leads to poverty. Similarly optimum size of population, theory explains that there should be balance between population and production of food. It fails we find change in society. To maintain balanced society we want population.

Birth rate and death rate: A high birth rate and low death rate leads to population increase. This brings various problems, like poverty, unemployment, housing problems etc Similar lower birth rate and higher death rate brings changes in society like that of scarcity of human resources, decrease in efficiently. This may create defense problem in nation.

Migration: It is one of the most influential activities which brings changes in society. Migration means movements of population from one area to another. There are two types of migration 1) Urban rural migration 2) Rural urban migration.

Age and sex ratio: Population constitutes three elements in its structure children, youth and old. In every society the members of below fourteen years and more. But in china due to strick’One child norm’ there is decrease in 0-14 years age children ratio. If youth population low economic development. 

Cultural factor: Man is a social human being. Also man is a cultural being, the term society itself express that, it is a cultural phenomenon. Without culture it is difficult to understand social life.

Mainly three process can be observed which bring change:

• Discovery: discovery is the perception which unfold a reality that already exists, for egg. Vasco- D-Gama discovered way to India by sea. 
• Invention: invention is use of existing knowledge to produce something that did not exist before 
• Diffusion: diffusion is the spread of cultural elements from one culture to another. For egg. Western culture is spreading in east. Buddhism and its culture spread in China and Sri Lanka.

Use of machines and technological tools are common in modem society. Scientific development and approach towards making life more convenient, help the growth of society Ogbum and Nimkoff remark that the Most novel phenomena in society is not capitalism  but Mechanization. The role of technology can be discovered in the following ways:

Transport and communication: After 18th century, we see big changes in society due to industrialization, communication and transportation. Such development took place only because of growth in technology. As a result now modern technology has changed the joint family system and its relationships. Communication skills, transportation methods changed to such extent that today human world is called as “Global Village”.

Growth of classes: Industrialization leads to growth of urbanization. Industrialization brought opportunities for new professions. Youths are provided new jobs. Along with it new “Class” system developed in society. Society is classified as upper middle and lower class.

Agriculture: Changes in the agricultural technology directly influenced rural community invention of new agricultural tools and techniques’ chemical manures brought increase in agricultural production which influenced standard of living in village. 

(1) Competition is a culturally Patterned Process: It is present to some degree in all societies but it differs greatly from society to society. The fiercely competitive Kwakiutl society (a tribe of North America) and the relatively non-competitive Zuni (a pubelo Indian group of New Mexico) society offer an example of a striking contrast. American society though competitive, yet this competition is sharply limited.

(2) Competition is Impersonal: Impersonal means, the competition is usually not directed against any individual or group in particular. Competition may be personal when the competitors know one another but generally its nature is impersonal.

(3) Competition is Unconscious: Competition takes place on the unconscious level. Competitors at many times are not aware about other competitors and even if they are aware, they do not pay any heed to the activities of their competitors. Candidates, appearing for IAS or any other competitive examination, do not know one another and their whole attention is focused on their studies (reward or goal) rather than on competitors.

(4) Competition is Universal: Competition, though an important characteristic feature of modem society, is found in all societies primitive, traditional, modem or in pre-historic eras and in every age.

(5) Competition is Continuous: It is a never ending process. It goes on consciously or unconsciously all the time. It is unstable and frequently yields either to co-operation or to conflict.

(6) Competition is restrained: It implies that there are rules of the game to which all competitors must follow. When the competitors break the rules or when it turns into cut-throat competition (unrestricted), the situation transforms into conflict.

(7) Competition Is For Scarce Goods (Rewards): If the object of competition is in abundance (unlimited) quantity or sufficient in supply, there would be no competition. There is no competition for sunshine and air, which are unlimited.

According to Marshall Jones is of the opinion that a social group is two or more people between whom there is an established patter of interaction”.

Characteristics of social group: 

1. Collection of Interacting Individuals: Social groups consists of people. Social interaction is the very basis of group life, mere collection of individual does not make a group. The members must have interaction. A social group is, in fact, a system of social interaction. Different interaction patterns exists in different groups such as family, friendship, and recreational associations etc.

2. Sense of Group Unity and Solidarity: Depending on the nature of the group, its members are tied together by a sense of unity. The solidarity or unity of a group is largely dependent upon the frequency, the variety, and the emotional quality of the interactions of its members. A friends group or a peer group, or a professional association is highly united because its members are related by several common interests. 

3. Group Goals and Interests: The interest and goal of a group are said to be common. Groups are mostly formed or established for the fulfillment of certain interests. In fact, men not join groups but also form groups for the realization of their objectives or interests. Forms of the group differ depending upon the interests of the groups, educational groups, professional groups, recreational groups and so on. ,

4. Groups are Stronger Than Their Individual Members: A group is more than the sum of its parts. As Durkheim noted a group has a reality of its own or “suigeneris”. For example, the age and size of a group are not simple derived from the ages and sizes of its members. As Wallace and Wallace have pointed out. “Groups generally stronger collectively than even the strongest individual members”. 

5. Group Norms: Every group has its own rules or norms which the members are supposed to follow. These norms may be in the form of customs, folkways, mores, traditions, conventions, laws tec. They may be written or unwritten norms or standards. Every group has its own ways and means of correcting those who go against the rules. The continued groups-life of man practically becomes impossible without some norms.

6. Size of the Group: Every group involves an idea of size. Social groups vary in size. A group may be small as that of a dyad as big as that of a political party having lakhs of members. Size will have its own impact on the character of the group. Membership is limited or unlimited depending on its purpose. 

7. Groups are Dynamic: Social groups are but dynamic. They are subject to changes whether slow or rapid. Old members die and new members are born. Some existing groups may disintegrate and new groups may come to be formed. Small groups may develop into gigantic groups, and the larger ones may shrink in size.

8. Degree of stability: Groups are formed to be stable or unstable: permanent or temporary in character. Some groups like, the crowd, mob, audience, spectators, group etc. are purely temporary and unstable. But many groups such as political parties, students union professional organizations and trade unions are relatively permanent and stable in character.

India’s main activity is agriculture. 67% of people are engaged in this activity. Farmers main production is food grains, such as wheat, rice, ragi and cereals. After independence, food production was very low, but population was very less in that period. Anyhow it was manageable and government imported some food grains from America. In Five Years Plan, some prominence on agriculture was given. Loans, subsidy were introduced especially for ST, SC. Backward classes – some wise people utilized this opporunity and some people became bad debtors to bank and cooperative societies.

New and hybrid varieties were introduced ‘ and at the same time. Chemical manure also came into market. More utilization of chemical manure, land became barren, new variety attracted new types of pest and viruses. The result is crop-failure: End result in farmers became debtor to bank and co-operative societies. Harassment from bank staff increased and farmer became drunkards. Dept became heavy and ultimately he put an end to his life by hanging or drinking pesticides. Now a days suicide cases are disappeared gradually.

Regarding water also New Technology were introduced. Tube Well were introduced by this underground water gradually exhausted. Even drinking water also exhausted remained. Little water is full of flouride. One who uses this water suffer from tooth decay. Nobody will forget the tragedy of endo-sulphan near Kasargod, Kerala border. Still it effects the newly born babies. By new technology, new troubles were introduced.

Indian farmer has seen ups and downs in course of time since 50’s till date. Social, economical and cultural changes he witnessed.

Cultural factor Man is a social human being. Also man is a cultural being, the term society itself express that it is a cultural phenomenon. Without culture it is difficult to understand social life.

Mainly three Process can be observed which bring change:

• Discovery: discovery is the perception which unfold a reality that already exists, for eg. Vasco- D-Gama discovered way to India by sea. 
• Invention: invention is use of existing knowledge to produce something that did not exist before 
• Diffusion: diffusion is the spread of cultural elements from one culture to another. For egg. Western culture is spreading in east. Buddhism and its culture spread in China and SriLanka.

Material culture: according to Ogbum material culture includes all the man made concrete, tangible, visible things. They include for example the house, buildings, furniture, automobiles, machines, dams, locomotives etc. it also includes the printing press, banks, money and the like. Material culture is also referred to as “Civilization”. The material culture is undergoing rapid changes within a short period of time.

Non Material Culture: it includes all the abstracts intangible invisible elements. The beliefs, tradition, habits, values, rituals etc. are the examples for non material culture. Ogburn includes . languages and ideologies, all the contributions such as family, marriage and religion in non¬material culture. It is said that the non material culture changes slowly and does not adjust itself to the changes in material culture.

The primary functions are: 

Member replacement and physical maintenance: In order to survive, every society must replace members who die and keep the survivors alive. The regulations of reproduction is centered in the family as are cooking and eating and care of the sick. Once children are bom, they will be nurtured and protected within the family. It is the family that feeds, clothes and shelters them.

Regulation of sexual behavior:The family regulates sexual behavior. Each member’s sexual behavior is influenced to some extent by what is learnt in the family setting. The sexual attitudes and patterns of behavior in the family reflects societal norms and regulate the sexual behavior,

Socialization of children: The family carries out the responsibility of socializing each child. Children are taught largely by their families to conform to socially approved patterns of behavior. The family as an act of instrument of transmission of culture, it serves the individual as an instrument of socialization.

Status transmission: Individual social identity is initially fixed by family membership being bom to parents of a given status. Children take on the socio-economic class standing of their parents and the culture of the class into which they are born, including its value, behavior patterns, in addition to the internalizing family attitudes and beliefs. Children are treated and defined by others as extensions of the social identity of their parents.

Emotional support: The family as a primary group is an important source of affecting entertainment love and interaction, caring. It is seemingly the nature of human begins to establish social interdependency, not only to meet physical needs, but also to gratify emotional and psychological needs also.

Fulfillment of needs: Family is the most important primary institution that gives moral and emotional support for the members. Providing safety, security, love and affection. Warmth and comfort. It provides defense against Isolation. Family as an health agency provides most of the help for the young, the old and the sick. It is by large responsibility for the Health of its members.

Alex Inkle’s in his book “what is Sociology?”-has provided a general outline of the fields of Sociology on which there is considerable agreement among sociologists. It could be presented in the following manner:

1. Providing a sociological analysis of human culture and society: The major concern of Sociology is human society and its culture. A sociologist seeks to provide an analysis of human society and culture with sociological perspective. He evinces interest in the evolution of society and tries to reconstruct the major stages in the evolutionary process. An attempt is also made to analyse the factors and forces underlying historical transformations of society. Due importance is given to the scientific method that is adopted in the sociological studies.

2. Analysing the primary units of social units of social life: s has given sufficient attention to the study of primary units of social life. In this area it is concerned with social acts and social relationships, individual personality, groups of all varieties, communities(urban, rural and tribal), association organisations and population. – 

3. Studying the nature and functions of basic social institutions: Socia institutions constitute the basic fabric the society. Any social system is built on the foundation of social institutions. Institutions such as – the family and kinship religions and morality, economic and political, legal and educational, scientific and aesthetic, recreational and expressive, medical and welfare, etc., serve the most important needs of man. Sociology develops deep into the study of the origin and development, structure and function, changes and challenges of a wide variety of social institutions.

4. Sociology throws light on the fundamental social processes: Human society is neither static nor uniform. It is dynamic and diverse. This dynamic element in society is reflected by what are known as social processes. They reveal the way in which human interaction assume different patterns and courses in social life. The social processes such as co-operation and competition, accommodation, and assimilation, social conflict and communication, social differentiation and stratification, socialisation social control and deviance, social integration and social change, etc., assume prominence in sociological studies.

In the present era of explosion of knowledge, sociologists have ventured to make specialisations also, thus, today good number of specialised fields of inquiry are emerging out. Sociology of knowledge, Sociology of history, Sociology of culture, Sociology of religion, Sociology of family, etc., represent such specialised fields.

The role of individual and society in environment pollution Environment pollution is the Global problem caused by the modem industrial society, it’s a primary duty of every governments and sensible civilians: 

• To bring out the policies of environment and industries which are coordinate to environment protection 
• To control the uncontrolled urbanization and un-scientific urbanization through good city planning. 
• The water from the factories and domestic usage must be processed and let to rivers and sea. 
• Prohibit the plastic use, inorganic waste things must be processed in for away places and can made to re-use 
• To establish separate dust bins to dry and raw wastes to help the public 
• Environment protection must be a main agenda for the public 
• Each and every one of the workers belt, with collars, and everyone must feel that the protection of environment is their first duty. 
• The researches about the environment protection must be encouraged through funding 
• All the projects regarding the Environment Protection must be implemented duly and succeed.
• Use toilets must be mandatory 
• Bringing awareness in the public regarding the side effects of pesticides and the medicines. 
• To encourage organic agriculture.

The government and private organizations role in India’s environment protection is important. In 1969 on the request by the Government of India for the protection of nature a fund for the nature protection is established. In 1980 Environment department and in 1983 environment, forestry and wild life departments are established.

According to Malinowski: “culture is the handiwork of man and the medium through which he achieves his ends” Characteristics of culture are:

1. Culture is learntm: Culture is often understood as learned ways of behaviors. Culture is not an inborn tendency. It is acquired or learnt. It includes those learned patterns for thinking, feeling and acting that are transmitted from one generation to the next. Therefore what is learned through socialization and are acquired in group life are what is called culture.

2. Culture is Social: Culture is not the property of any individual. It is the social heritage of man. It is a way of group life. It originates in and develops through social interaction. It consists of a number of behavior patterns that are common to a group of people. It is the inclusive of all expectation of the members of the groups. Thus culture is a social products shared by most of the members of the group.

3. Culture is Shared: Culture is a social property. It belongs to the group. The elements of culture such as customs beliefs, idea, folkways, mores, and language are all belonged to the people of a group. These are commonly shared by the members of a group. So culture is the product of groups life. Culture cannot be hidden and used by one individual. According to Robert Bierstadt. “Culture is something adopted, used believed, practiced or possessed by more than one person”. 

4. Culture is Transmissive: Culture is the total social heritage. It is linked with the past. The past continues because it lives in culture. Culture is something that can be transmitted from one generation to the next. Culture is passed through language. Language is the chief vehicles of culture. Culture is also passed from one generation to another through traditions and customs. It is a product of human experience.

Biological factor: It indicates two types (A) One is non human biological factor and (B) Second is human biological factor. It is true that both constitute total life on earth.

Mclver and page are the opinion that demographic or biological factors involves (1)size of population (2) structure of population (3) Heredity (4) race (5) Birth rate (6)Death rate (7) fertility (8)sex ratio 

Six of population: People are assets, without men and women this society is useless. But the size of population is to balanced. We know that according to Malthus, more population leads to poverty. Similarly optimum size of population, theory explains that there should be balance between population and production of food. It fails we find change in society. To maintain balanced society we want population.

Birth rate and death rate: A high birth rate and low death rate leads to population increase. This brings various problems, like poverty, unemployment, housing problems etc Similar lower birth rate and higher death rate brings changes in society like that of scarcity of human resources, decrease in efficiently. This may create defense rblem in nation.

Migration: It is one of the most influential activities which brings changes in society. Migration means movements of population from one area to another. There are two types of migration (1) Urban rural migration (2) Rural urban migration.

Age and sex ratio: Population constitutes three elements in its structure children, youth and old. In every society the members of below fourteen years and more. But in china due to strick’ One child norm,’ there is decrease in 0-14 years age children ratio. If youth population low economic development. 

According to Durkheim “Education as the socialization of the younger generation and it is a continuous efforts to impose on the child ways of seeing feeling and acting which he could not have arrived at spontaneously. The education process, with its different specialization, different levels and certification process which goes along with it, allocates the younger generation to various roles in society according to their possession of or lack of appropriate diplomas and degree, specifying particular skills, abilities and values.

Thus it legitimizes the existing distribution of position of socioeconomic gains and power by convincing the losers or relative loss that their failure in life is due to their failure in education, which interim is due to their lack of abilities. Moreover, this a locative function induces greater demands for more and more education and thus contributes to the expansion of education system and increase the common people’s dependence on and subjugation to, it is that some of the so called universal goals of education in a society articulate the thinking of philosophers and social reformers of the times.

According to Durkheim “Education as the socialization of the younger generation and it is a continuous efforts to impose on the child ways of seeing feeling and acting which he could not have arrived at spontaneously.

Reformative function: Education is of fundamental significance to the development and progress of human society. Although education as a process of socialization. Education has also the capacity to liberate the human mind from shackles of the pass and the present. It has the potential to make men question the ruling values and norms in society, to make them rebel- against the existing social constraints and to solutions to the developed social contradiction and constraints outside the frame work of he established system. This we call the transformative, progressive or reformative function of education.

The American sociologists Bowles and Gintis argue that the major role of education in modem world is the reproduction of labor power. The education system helps to achieve these objectives largely through the hidden curriculum. It is not the content of lessons and the examinations that pupils take which are important, but the form that teaching and learning take and the way that schools are organized. The hidden curriculum consists of those things that pupils learn through the experience of attending school, rather than the stated educational objectives of such institutions.

According to Bowles and Gintis, the hidden curriculum shapes the future workforce in the following ways:

1. It helps to produce a subservient workforce of uncritical, passive and docile workers. Far from living up to liberal ideal of encouraging self-development. 

2. Bowles and Gintis claim that the hidden curriculum encourages an acceptance of hierarchy. Schools are organized on a hierarchical principle of authority and control. 

3. At school, pupils learn to be motivated by external rewards, just as the workforce in a capitalist society is motivated by external rewards. Because students have so little control over, and little feeling of in volment in, their school work, they get little satisfaction from studying. 

Report Writing in final stage in Social Research process. It consists in communicating the finding of the study or investigation to others. There are different types of report, report to . general public is simple clear and interesting. Report meant to organizers, it is detailed. A report meant for scientific community must be technical.

A good report should be clear and accurate, it will not have any confusion. It should explain objectives of the study and comprehensive report must be properly organized with suitable arrangement and systematic presentation. It should be ethically neutral. It should not consist personal bias and prejudices. Report should have suitable writing style and attractive presentation. It should be always prepared according to the objectives of the study.

Report has no standard outline. But is should included a clear statement of the problem, information on finding and conclusions. In the preliminary of the report, there should be a Title page, preface or foreword, acknowledgements, methodology adopted, list or graphs, illustrations, tables, charts it should have table of contents. 

The contents of the report should have an introduction, which explains objectives of the study, statements of the problem and its definition, hypothesis, definitions of concepts, review of literature and previous studies, scope, time and place of present study assumptions and limitations.

Finally, report should included reference materials also. It includes Bibliography, appendices, glossary of terms and index, certain format is followed in giving bibliography. 

Generally authors name, year of publication, name of the book, referred page numbers, address of publisher is provided in reference. All these aspects of report, explain relevance of the study. 

Law is the most powerful formal means of social control in the modern society. It is an indispensable part of the modern social life. Laws appear only in societies where a political organization called “Government” is found. According to J.S. Roucek “Laws are a farm of social rule emanating from political agencies” 

Characteristics: 

• Laws are the general condition of human activity prescribed by the state for its members. 
• Law is called law, only if enacted by a proper law making authority. Hence it is a product of conscious thought deliberate attempts and careful planning. 
• Law is written definite, clear, precise and unambiguous. 
• Law applies equally to all without exception in identical circumstances. 
• Violation of law is followed by penalties and punishments determined by the authority of – the state. 
• Laws are always written down and recorded.
• Laws are not the result of voluntary consent of persons against whom they are directed. 
• Laws a dynamic and subject to change. Law is not a static body of rules handed down from generation to generation. Rather, it reflects continually changing standards of what is right and wrong of how violations are to be determined, and of what sanctions are to be applied. 
• Laws differ from country to country. Though the outward pattern of the legal system to be same every where the content of laws often differ significantly. 

The two difference between primary and secondary data are: Primary data: 

• Primary data is originally data collected by the researcher from field study 
• The major sources of primary data are observation, interview, questionnaire, and social survey. Secondary data:
• It is collected by the researcher from different documents 
• It included personal documents public documents books, periodicals, abstracts and indexes.

The nature and characteristics of sociology can be summarised in the following way : 

Sociology is an Independent Science: Sociology is not treated and studied as a branch of any other Science like philosophy or political philosophy. As an independent science it has its own subject matter, theories and method of approach.

Sociology is a Social Science not a physical Science: Sociology belongs to the Social Science and not to the physical science. As a Social Science it concentrates its attention on man, his Social behaviour, Social activities and Social life. It is intimately related to other social Sciences like anthropology, Political Science, economics, and Psychology, etc.

Sociology is a categorical not a Normative Discipline: Sociology Studies things “as it is” and “not as they ought to be”. As a Science, Sociology is necessarily silent about the questions of value. It does not make any kind of value-judgements. Its approaches neither moral nor immoral but amoral. It is ethically neutral. It cannot decide the directions in which Sociology ought to go. Sociology is a pure Science not an Applied science: Sociology is a pure science, because the immediate aim of Sociology is the acquisition of knowledge. 

On the contrary an applied science is interested in the application or utilization of that knowledge. Sociologists never determine questions of public policy and do not recommend legislators what laws should be passed or repealed. But the knowledge acquired by a Sociologist is of great help to the administrator, legislators, diplomats, teachers, Social workers, & citizens, Sociology is relatively an abstract science and not a concrete science Sociology does not confine itself to the study of particular or concrete instances of human events.

But it. studies the abstract forms of human events and their patterns. For example, it does not limit ‘ itself to the Study of any particular war or revolution. On the contrary it deals with them in a I general or abstract manner, as Social phenomena, i.e., as types of Social conflict. In a similar manner, it makes such generalized Studies of marriage, religion, family, group, etc. 

Sociology is a Generalising and not a particularising science: Sociology tries to make generalisations on the basis of the study of some selected events. For example, a Sociologist make generalizations on the following:

1. Joint families are more stable than the nuclear families. 

2. Social changes tale place with greater rapidity in urban communities than in tribal or rural communities.

Sociology is a General Social Science and not a special Social Science: The area of enquiry of Sociology is general and not specialized. It is concerned with human activities whether they are political, economic, religious, social, etc., in a general way.

Finally Sociology is both an Empirical and a Rational Science: Sociology is an empirical science because it emphasises the facts that result from observation and experimentation, it rests on trial, or experiment or experience. It is a rational Science because it stresses the role of reasoning and logical inferences. An empiricist collects facts where as a rationalist co-ordinates and arranges them. All modem science including Sociology avail themselves of both empirical and rational resources.

Biological factor: It indicates two types (A) One is non human biological factor and (B) Second is human biological factor. It is true that both constitute total life on earth.

Mclver and page are the opinion that demographic or biological factors involves (1)size of population (2) structure of population (3) Heredity (4) race (5) Birth rate (6)Death rate (7) fertility (8)sex ratio

Six of population: People are assets, without men and women this society is useless. But the size of population is to balanced. We know that according to Malthus, more population leads to poverty. Similarly optimum size of population, theory explains that there should be balance between population and production of food. It fails we find change in society. To maintain balanced society we want population.

Birth rate and death rate: A high birth rate and low death rate leads to population increase. This brings various problems, like poverty, unemployment, housing problems etc Similar lower birth rate and higher death rate brings changes in society like that of scarcity of human resources, decrease in efficiently. This may create defense r blem in nation. 

Migration: It is one of the most influential activities which brings changes in society. Migration means movements of population from one area to another. There are two types of migration (1) Urban rural migration (2) Rural urban migration.

Age and sex ratio: Population constitutes three elements in its structure children, youth and old. In every society the members of below fourteen years and more. But in china due to strick’ One child norm,’ there is decrease in 0-14 years age children ratio. If youth population low economic development.

Ogburn and Nimkoff says that sometimes “Boon to society is also opposed”

The factors for resistance are:

1. Inadequacy of invention: For one or the other reason. People may or may not show interest in inventions. Some time the innovatory fails to convince the community. Inventions do not impress community life or are needful by that perfect of time.

1. Fear: Men in general are happy with present. People always feel that new disturbs or may bring new problems. When Thomas Edison invented electric bulb, exhibition of illuminating electric bulb was arranged, immediately when electric bulb illuminated, people ran away with fear. Earlier people did not show interest in photography.

2. Ignorance: Education and training make him intelligent. Even though man is ignorant about new. Before he is given proper knowledge his ignorance make him to resist. Secondly some men do not even learn to live. They are happy with their ignorance. America took generations to learn use of iron plough. Material change and its resistances is temporary. For example Mahatma Gandhiji and his efforts are still in process to bring “non alcoholic society”.

3. Habit: Man develops his personality thorough socialization. Once developed Personality cannot be changed easily. Personality is a complex whole of many habits. Habits force man to follow traditions. Habits influence our thoughts and dialylife.. people hesitate to accept new rules and regulations in society. 

4. Vested Interests: Vested Interest are selfish groups who want statuesque. Most social changes carry a threat to some vested interests. Land Reform Act in India brought change. But such change and legislative reformations were opposed by land lords. Orthodox society is always in fear of losing its interests, it opposes inter caste marriage. 

5. Economic Costs: Money play important role in adopting social change. For example to implement five year planning Indian government invested money. In recent tears cost of planning is raising. Some of the welfare measures like education, health, housing are lagging behind.

6. Lack of an integrated approach: Society is combination of different parts, for example religion, education, government are in social system only. Change in one element brings ehange in another part also. When we want to bring change in religion it is necessary to bring change in education system also. To eradicate blind belief or evil practices all other conditions in prevailing society should be changed

7. Technical difficulties in implementation:Looking to new technical innovations, society adopt its life style. Community many times accepts technical changes immediately, but does not accept some time. Technical devices should be restructured or they are not suitable to the conditions, hence there is hindrance in acceptance. 

8. Intellectual Laziness: Creativity drive the attention immediately. Lack of creativity in man does not accept new. Active men agree to modem condition. Lazy do not. To understand the importance of new one must show interest in it. when there is lack of interest and do not pay attention, it is difficult to make men to change themselves.

9. Desire for stability: Society and its functions go smooth with required stability. Individuals ire safe in stable society. Change disturbs the balance in present society. Often change brings insecurity to people in society. Common men feel

1. no guarantee in new social system, and 

2. new things may bring pain. 

3. Pleasure and comforts may not exists in new 

4. wants to maintain present status. 

Therefore, members in stable conditions do not accept change. Desire for stability is guard against change.

Ogbum and Nimkoff says that sometimes “Boon to society is also opposed” 

The factors for resistance are:

1. Inadequacy of invention: For one or the other reason. People may or may not show interest in inventions. Some time the innovatory fails to convince the community. Inventions do not impress community life or are needful by that perfect of time.

2. Fear: Men in general are happy with present. People always feel that new disturbs or may bring new problems. When Thomas Edison invented electric bulb, exhibition of illuminating electric bulb was arranged, immediately when electric bulb illuminated, people ran away with fear. Earlier people did not show interest in photography. 

3. Ignorance: Education and training make him intelligent. Even though man is ignorant about new. Before he is given proper knowledge his ignorance make him to resist. Secondly some men do not even learn to live. They are happy with their ignorance. America took generations to learn use of iron plough. Material change and its resistances is temporary. For example Mahatma Gandhiji and his efforts are still in process to bring “non alcoholic society”.

4. Habit: Man develops his personality thorough socialization. Once developed Personality cannot be changed easily. Personality is a complex whole of many habits. Habits force man to follow traditions. Habits influence our thoughts and dialylife.. people hesitate to accept new rules and regulations in society. 

5. Vested Interests: Vested Interest are selfish groups who want statuesque. Most social changes carry a threat to some vested interests. Land Reform Act in India brought change. But such change and legislative reformations were opposed by land lords. Orthodox society is always in fear of losing its interests, it opposes inter caste marriage.

6. Economic Costs: Money play important role in adopting social change. For example to implement five year planning Indian government invested money. In recent tears cost of planning is raising. Some of the welfare measures like education, health, housing are lagging behind.

7. Lack of an integrated approach: Society is combination of different parts, for example religion, education, government are in social system only. Change in one element brings change in another part also. When we want to bring change in religion it is necessary to bring change in education system also. To eradicate blind belief or evil practices all other conditions in prevailing society should be changed 

8. Technical difficulties in implementation: Looking to new technical innovations, society adopt its life style. Community many times accepts technical changes immediately, but does not accept some time. Technical devices should be restructured or they are not suitable to the conditions, hence there is hindrance in acceptance.

9. Intellectual Laziness: Creativity drive the attention immediately. Lack of creativity in man does not accept new. Active men agree to modem condition. Lazy do not. To understand the importance of new one must show interest in it. when there is lack of interest and do not pay attention, it is difficult to make men to change themselves. 

10. Desire for stability: Society and its functions go smooth with required stability. Individuals are safe in stable society. Change disturbs the balance in present society. Often change brings insecurity to people in society. Common men feel

1. No guarantee in new social system, and 

2. New thing; nay bring pain. 

3. Pleasure and comforts may not exists in new 

4. Wants to maintain present status.

Therefore, members in stable conditions do not accept change. Desire for stability is guard against change.

The term folkways was introduced to the sociological literature by W.G. Summer in his book with the little “Folkways” published in 1906. The word literately means “The ways of the floor people”. Folkways are the accepted ways of behavior. 

Characteristics : 

(a) Social in Nature: Folkways are the product of man’s group life. They are created by the groups for their sustenance and maintenance. Individuals get social recognition by conforming to the folkways. Every new generation absorbs folkways partly by deliberate teaching but mainly by observing and talking part in life about them.

(b) Unplanned Origin: The origin of folkways are very obscure. Sumner believed that they arise automatically and unconsciously. They are not result of any advance planning.

(c) Informal Enforcement: Folkways are not as compulsive and obligatory as those of laws or morals. Conformity to the folkways is neither required by law nor enforced by any special agency of the society.

(d) Folkways are Innumerable: It is not possible for anyone to enlist all the folkways. No encyclopedia could contain all the folkways observed by all of the people of history. They are very diverse and numerous.

(e) Folkways are subject to change: Folkways are not static, but dynamic; folkways are change with changing social conditions. Some folkways undergo relatively rapid change; some are resist change very of ten.

Characteristics of institution 

(a) Universal : Social institution are universal in nature, they are found everywhere and at all stages of social development. There can be no society in the absence of institutions. The basic institutions such as marriage, family, property.religioin are observed even in the tribal or primitive societies.

(b) Institutions are Standardized Norms : Social institution must be understood as well recognized or standardized procedures and norms, they prescribe the way of doing thing. They also prescribe rules and regulations that are to be followed. For example – marriage, as an institution that governs the relation between the husband and wife. Similarly the school or college has its own established or standardized rules and procedures.

(c) Institutions are Controlling Mechanism: Institutions like religion, education, morality, state, government, legislation etc Control the behavior of man. These mechanisms preserve the social order and give stability to it. Institutions is the machinery through human society carries on its activities. They are like wheels on which human society marches on towards the desirable goals.

(d) Institutions are Relatively Permanent: Institutions normally do not undergo sudden or rapid changes. Changes take place gradually. Many institutions are rigid and enduring. They in course of time became the conservative element in society. Examplescaste, religion etc. But under the pressure of circumstances they also undergo changes.

(e) Abstract in Nature: Institutions are not external visible or tangible things. They are abstract. Thus marriage Cannot be kept in a museum. Religion cannot be brought to the laboratory experiments and so on. However They can be compared and evaluated on the basis of values and ideologies.

Research is a “Systematized investigation to gain a new knowledge about social phenomena and problems we call it social research”. Modem society is dominated by Information and Communication Technology. Recent computers perform multidimensional functions. Various ‘ soft ware packages provide data on different topics. Use of internet provided world wide data on different subjects. Internet provides more up to data information, very large extent of data which is limitless because traditional print media has limited space in library.

Internet access is available for 24 hours a day. research successfully save time, energy and resources due to use of internet. Computer Assisted Personal Interviewing and Computer Assisted Telephone Interviewing techniques are common in America. It helps the researcher to collect data systematic way and computer easily store, classify and analyses the responses immediately completion of interview.

The techniques of data collection are: Observation is a regulated perception of facts and circumstances with a definite purpose in view. There are two types of observation on the basis of different criteria:

1. Controlled and Uncontrolled observation: controlled observation implies the use of various tools and instruments to control one or more variable. It usually takes place in a laboratory. Uncontrolled observation is also called unaided observation because it is made in the natural environment without exercising any controls on the phenomena observed.

2. Participant and Non-Participant Observation: The Participant observation method focus on observer or researcher participants in the social phenomena under study. Whereas in Non-participant observation or researcher does not participate, is a loaf and observes the life and activities of the group in a passive manner.

Merits of participant Observation 

• It is possible to observe the natural behavior of the group because the observer is not stranger. 
• It is possible to gather quantitatively more and quantitatively better information. 
• It is possible to get better insights into the phenomena because the observer is an insider. 
• It is possible to observe secrete behavior.

Demerits. 

• There is a danger objectives because of emotional attachment and over-involvement or ego-satisfaction 
• Some phenomena cannot be observed through participation. For instance, an observer cannot become a criminal.

Merits of Non-Participant Observation 

• It is possible to retain a high level of objectivity. 
• A non-participant observer is able to collect considerable information because of his open role as an observer and his eagerness to learn.

Demerits . 

• It is not possible to get information on many aspects of life and activities because observation is limited to formal occasions and organizations.
• It is not possible to gain insights into many aspects of behavior because the observer is an outsider.

Merits and limitation of Observation Merits 

• It is possible to record behavior as it occurs, without any distortions. This gives highly qualitative data. 
• Observation is a flexible method of data collection 
• It is independent of people’s willingness to report.

Limitations 

• Data collected through observation cannot be quantified 
• There is a danger of bias, especially hidden bias. 
• Observation cannot be used to study private behavior 
• Observation is limited by the duration of the event.

Interview 

The very term implies “Interviewing is an interactional process, it is a mutual view of each other.

Structured Interview: has predetermined questions and standard techniques. The number of questions is also fixed. In this method of interview, number and nature of questions, order of asking them, wording of questions, recording system and everything in the interview process is standardized Merits of structured Interview’:

• It provides safe basis for the generalization 
• In this method, interview’s bias can be restricted 
• It is more methodical and easy to administer

Demerits. 

• The rigid and mechanical process, sometimes defeat the purpose of interview. It lacks the flexible nature and personal touch in interview 
• In this method, there is a possibility that substances of interview obtain less importance than fon*:al process and set up.

The educational system tries to embrace almost all people where they are young and equip them with at least the minimum skills of literacy and numeracy education. Following are the important functions of Education.

1. Preservation function: As the transmission of culture is needed for the preservation of social order, it is also called the preservation function of education. Social structure persists only with the aid certain values and these values have to be handed down to the next generation. When the values and skills become absolute with the passage of time replacing ‘ them with new vistas is also a major function of education. With the growth of modern economy and the complexity of socio-economic structure.

This is usually achieved through the political and administrative apparatus. The knowledge, skill and values acquired through education not only meet the economic needs of society, but also permeated with a social ‘content corresponding to the existing socio-economic and political structure and the consequent social stratification and distribution of power in society.

2. A locative function: The education process, with its’different specialization, different levels and certification process which goes along with it, allocates the younger generation to various roles in society according to their possession of or lack of appropriate diplomas and degree, specifying particular skills,

abilities and values. Thus it legitimizes the existing distribution of position of socio-economic gains and power by convincing the losers or relative loss that their failure in life is due to their failure in education, which interim is due to their lack of abilities.

Moreover, this a locative function induces greater demands for more and more education and thus contributes to the expansion of education system and increase the common people’s dependence on and subjugation to, it is that some of the so called universal goals of education in a society articulate the thinking of philosophers and social reformers of the times,

3. Reformative function: Education is of fundamental significance to the development and progress of human society. Although education as a process of socialization. Education has also the capacity to liberate the human mind from shackles of the pass and the present. It has the potential to make men question the ruling values and norms in society, to make them rebel-against the existing social constraints and to solutions to the developed social contradiction and constraints outside the frame work of he established system. This we call the transformative, progressive or reformative function of education.

The American sociologists Bowles and Gintis argues that the major role of education in modem world is the reproduction of labor power. The education system helps to achieve these objectives . largely through the hidden curriculum. It is not the content of lessons and the examinations that pupils take which are important, but the form that teaching and learning take and the way that schools are organized. The hidden curriculum consists of those things that pupils learn through the experience of attending school, rather than the stated educational objectives of such institutions.

According to Bowles and Gintis, the hidden curriculum shapes the future workforce in the following ways:

1. it helps to produce a subservient workforce of uncritical, passive and docile workers. Far from living up to liberal ideal of encouraging self-development. 

2. Bowles and Gintis claim that the hidden curriculum encourages an acceptance of hierarchy. Schools are organized on a hierarchical principle of authority and control. 

3. At school, pupils learn to be motivated by external rewards, just as the workforce in a capitalist society is motivated by external rewards. Because students have so little control over, and little feeling of involment in, their school work, they get little satisfaction from studying. 

The characteristics of marriage are: 

1. Marriage is more or less a universal institutional: It is found among the pre-literate as well as literate people. It is enforced as a social rule in some of the societies. For example. In Japan celibacy is publicly condemned. In Korea, unmarried individual are called ‘Half’ persons. Among the Hindus, marriage is a sacrament which is regarded as more or less obligatory. The Todas of Nilagiri refuse to perform funeral rites for a girl if she dies before her marriage. But they do perform it after completing some sort of marriage ceremony for the corpse. According to the Chinese philosopher Confucius, an individual who remains unmarried throughout his life commits a crime.

2. Relationship between Man and Woman: Marriage is a union of man and woman. It indicates a relationship between one or more men to one or more women. Who should marry whom? One should marry how many? Are the questions which represent social rules regarding marriage differ significantly. 

3. Marital bond is relatively durable: Marriage indicates a long lasting bond between the husband and wife. Hence, it is not coextensive with sex life. It excludes relationships with prostitutes or any other sexual relationship which is viewed as casual and not sanctioned by custom, law or church. Marital relationship between man and women lasts even after the sexual satisfaction is obtained. 

4. Marriage requires social approval: A union of man and .,..mn becomes a marital baond only when the society gives its approval. When marriage is given the hallmark of social approval, it becomes a legal contract. 

5. Marriage is associated with some civil or religious ceremony: Marriage gets its social recognition through some ceremony. This ceremony may have its own rites, rituals, customs, formalities, etc, it means marriage has to be concluded in public and in a solemn manner. Sometimes as s sacrament it receives the blessing of religion. Marriage among the Hindus, for examples, is regarded as a sacrament. It is connected with the sacred rituals such as- Vagdana. Homa, Kanyadana, Magalia Dharana, Saptapadi, Ashmarohana, etc.

6. Marriage creates mutual obligations: Marriage imposes certain rights and duties on both the husband and wife. Both are required to support each other and their children.

According to Robert Bierstedt “ Culture is the Complex whole that consists of everything we think and do and have as members of society.

Characteristics of culture are: 

1. Culture is learnt: Culture is often understood as learned ways of behaviors. Culture is not an inborn tendency. It is acquired or learnt. It includes those learned patterns for thinking, feeling and acting that are transmitted from one generation to the next. Therefore what is learned through socialization and are acquired in group life are what is called culture.

2. Culture is Social: Culture is not the property of any individual. It is the social heritage of man. It is a way of group life. It originates in and develops through social interaction. It consists of a number of behavior patterns that are common to a group of people. It is the inclusive of all expectation of the members of the groups. Thus culture is a social products shared by most of the members of the group.

3. Culture is Shared: Culture is a social property. It belongs to the group. The elements of culture such as customs beliefs, idea, folkways, mores, and language are all belonged to the people of a group. These are commonly shared by the members of a group. So culture is the product of groups life. Culture cannot be hidden and used by one individual. According to Robert Bierstadt. “Culture is something adopted, used believed, practiced or possessed by more than one person”.

4. Culture is Transmissive: Culture is the total social heritage. It is linked with the past. The past continues because it lives in culture. Culture is something that can be transmitted from one generation to the next. Culture is passed through language. Language is the chief vehicles of culture. Culture is also passed from one generation to another through traditions and customs. It is a product of human experience.

5. Culture is Relative: All societies are not uniform. Hence all culture are also not uniform. They are vary and differ from time to time and place to place. There may be common elements such as customs, mores, folkways, art forms, dietary habits, value systems, institutions, etc, may be seen everywhere culture is also related to time. It varies from time to time; Histoiy of every society is the history of change in culture from time to time.

6. Culture is Dynamic: Culture is not a static phenomena. It is a Dynamic entity. Changes in society implies changes in its culture. Culture simply means a way of life. It is nothing but a total “design for living”. Factors like inventions, problems, plans and policies etc. have a drastic effect on culture. As society changes a new way of life in evolved and adopted to adjust with the changing circumstances. Every factor that during changes in society will also being changes in the culture. Thus culture is dynamic.

7. Culture is Gratifying: Culture is the pilot of every human activity. Culture provides the necessary environment for the satisfaction of human wants. It shows the way for getting the work done. Culture determines and guides the activities of men.

8. Culture is continuous and cumulative: Culture is an growing phenomenon. It includes the glory of the past and the achievements present. Eg: Bullock carts, train, Aero planes etc., achievements. It is always cumulative.

9. Culture is Idea national: It is not merely material and non material culture. One cannot confine the culture as an objects which satisfies different goals of life. The members of society provides a psychological meanings to their own cultural traits. They attach the sentiments to their cultural elements. In this regard Herbert Spencer considers culture is neither organic, nor inorganic but it is super organic. It is commonly witnessed that people never tolerate any condemnation of their culture.

The term folkways was introduced to the sociological literature by W.GSummer in his book with the little “Folkways” published in 1906. the word literately means “The ways of the floor people”. Folkways are the accepted ways of behavior. 

(a) Social in nature : Folkways are the product of man’s group life, they are created by the groups for their sustenance and maintenance. Individuals get social recognition by conforming to the folkways. Every new generation absorbs folkways partly by deliberate teaching but mainly by observing and talking part in life about them.

(b) Unplanned origin: The Origin of folkways are very obscure. Sumner believed that they arise automatically and unconsciously, they are not result of any advance planning.

(c) Informal Enforcement: Folkways are not as compulsive and obligatory as those of laws or morals. Conformity to the folkways is neither required by law nor enforced by any special agency of the society. 

(d) Folkways are Innumerable: It is not possible for anyone to enlist all the folkways, no encyclopedia could contain all the folkways observed by all of the people of history, they are very diverse and numerous.

(e) Folkways are subject to change: Folkways are not static, but dynamic, folkways are change with changing social conditions, some folkways undergo relatively rapid change, some are resist change very often. 

The techniques of data collection are: Observation is a regulated perception of facts and circumstances with a definite purpose in view 

There are two types of observation on the basis of different criteria: 

1. Controlled and Uncontrolled observation: Controlled observation implies the use of various tools and instruments to control one or more variable. It usually takes place in a laboratory. Uncontrolled observation is also called unaided observation because it is made in the natural environment without exercising any controls on the phenomena observed.

2. Participant and Non-Participant Observation: The Participant observation method focus on observer or researcher participants in the social phenomena under study. Whereas in Non-participant observation or researcher does not participate, is a loaf and observes the life and activities of the group in a passive manner.

Merits of participant Observation 

• It is possible to observe the natural behavior of the group because the observer is not stranger. 
• It is possible to gather quantitatively more and quantitatively better information. 
• It is possible to get better insights into the phenomena because the observer is an insider. 
• It is possible to observe secrete behavior. 

Demerits. 

• There is a danger objectives because of emotional attachment and over-involment or ego- satisfaction 
• Some phenomena cannot be observed through participation. For instance, an observer cannot become a criminal. Merits of Non-Participant Observation
• It is possible to retain a high level of objectivity. 
• A non-participant observer is able to collect considerable information because of his open role as an observer and his eagerness to learn.

Demerits 

• It is not possible to get information on many aspects of life and activities because observation is limited to formal occasions and organizations. 
• It is not possible to gain insights into many aspects of behavior because the observer is an outsider.

Merits and limitation of Observation Merits

• It is possible to record behavior as it occurs, without any distortions. This gives highly qualitative data. 
• Observation is a flexible method of data collection 
• It is independent of people’s willingness to report.

Limitations 

• Data.collected through observation cannot be quantified 
• There is a danger of bias, especially hidden bias. 
• Observation cannot be used to study private behavior 
• Observation is limited by the duration of the event.

Interview 

The very term implies “Interviewing is an interactional process, it is a mutual view of each other. Structured Interview : has predetermined questions and standard techniques. The number of questions is also fixed. In this method of interview, number and nature of questions, order of asking them, wording of questions, recording system and everything in the interview process is standardized.

Merits of structured Interview:

• It provides safe basis for the generalization , 
• In this method, interview’s bias can be restricted 
• It is more methodical and easy to administer.

Demerits. 

• The rigid and mechanical process, sometimes defeat the purpose of interview. It lacks the flexible nature and personal touch in interview 
• In this method, there is a possibility that substances of interview obtain less importance than formal process and set up.

Unstructured (Oral) Interview: It is not rigid type of interview. In this method, there is flexibility in the entire process of interview. The interview has greater freedom to choose the form depending on situations. The flexibility nature of interview allows the interview to ask number, sequence, and method of questions according to requirements of situations.

Merits of Unstructured Interview 

• The informal nature of interview creates a congenial atmosphere for effective communication. 
• In a highly society of India, the formal set up interview imposes serve limitations on interview. Unstructured interview is the only remedy for this problem.

Demerits of Unstructured Interview 

• The informal nature of interview provides respondents to answer differently, this is difficult in analysis of data. 
• To administer this type of interview, well trained and skilled persons are required. 
• The more number of personal bias and prejudices may be the part of this method.

Merits of Interview method 

• It is possible to obtain highly reliable information and in depth knowledge 
• It is possible to obtain information about the past and also about future plans in a detailed manner. 
• There is a high rate of response 
• Interview method can be used with all types of persons.

Demerits of Interview method 

• There is a possibility of misleading information being given by the interview 
• There can be defects due to the interview who may not be the best person to give information
• There can be defects due to the bias or prejudice of the interview himself, interview is a- difficult skill and needs training 
• It is a costly and time-consuming method.

Primary Data is the information related to research collected by the researcher for the first time. This data is drawn from field study or from laborites. According for the specific purpose of solving a particular research problem”.

Primary data is original data collected by the researcher from field study. Primary or secondary data are collected through various tools or means. The major sources of primary data are: Observation., Interview; Questionnaire, Schedule and Social Survey. 

According to Durkheim “Education as the socialization of the younger generation and it is a continuous efforts to impose on the child ways of seeing feeling and acting which he could not have arrived at spontaneously.

Allocative function:The education process, with its different specialization, different levels and certification process which goes along with it, allocates the younger generation to various roles in society according to their possession of or lack of appropriate diplomas and degree, specifying particular skills, abilities and values. Thus it legitimizes the existing distribution of position of socio-economic gains and power by convincing the losers or relative loss that their failure in life is due to their failure in education, which interim is due to their lack of abilities.

Moreover, this a locative function induces greater demands for more and more education and thus contributes to the expansion of education system and increase the common people’s dependence on and subjugation to, it is that some of the so called universal goals of education in a society articulate the thinking of philosophers and social reformers of the times.

The society is a system of social relationship. We may witness such relationship between fateher and son, employer and employee, teacher and student, merchant and customer, leader and follower or between friends and enemies, between children etc., socialization must analyse and classify social relationship because they represent social fact and social data.

Social relationship reprsents the functional aspects of society. Analyzing and classifying social relationship is a difficult task. Social relationship involve reciprocal obligations. It refers to a pattern of interaction between these individuals thus social relationships may be studied by the kind or mode of interaction. It exhibit kinds of interaction are called social processes. Social processes are the fundamental ways in which men interact and establish relationships.

According to Maclver and Page:” Social processes is the manner in which the relationship of the members of a group, once brought together, acquire a distinctive character” 

According to A. W. Green: The social processes are merely the characteristics ways in which interaction occurs”.

Types of Social processes: Social processes refers to the kinds or types of social interaction. Social interaction assumes different forms, cooperation, competition, conflict, accommodation and assimilation are very necessary social interaction. These five types social interaction or social processes may be deeply analyzed here.

According to Durkheim “Education as the socialization of the younger generation and it is a continuous efforts to impose on the child ways of seeing feeling and acting which he could not have arrived at spontaneously.

The types of Education: Education is a process, as a process, education is a continuous activity that goes on all through one’s life-from birth to death. This process of humanizing man, developing his personality, transmitting culture from one generation to other, a Spontaneous unfolding of human potentialities, is carried on in all social institutions like religion, peer grouped, neighborhood, family and community etc.

on the other hand, what takes place in schools and colleges, the methodical socialization, designed instruction and interaction between socialize and the socializing agent for the education and the educator is what is called formal education. A brief description of types of education as follows:

1. Informal education: It simply denotes the in deliberate, spontaneous, life long process of learning continuously and universally emanating from all most all social institutions. The process of informal training begins for everyone of us in the family.

Family is the first school and the mother is the first teacher is the dictum that sufficiently explains the role of informal education in molding human nature and personality. “Peer Groups” means those groups made up of the age mates or contemporaries of the child, his associates in playground, neighborhood etc.,

2. Formal education: On the other hand is designed, consciously and deliberately given with a planned pursuit what takes place within the four walls of the school, strictly officially in accordance with the curriculum is format instruction. Time table, syllabi, specialized and compartmentalized knowledge, authority pattern, official structure, by laws, disciplines, hierarchy of teachers and class grades, examination system all reflects the formal design of the school and colleges. As it is with the modem social structure characterized by formal institution? and relations in performing economic, industrial, legal and political regulative functions.

Acid rain means factories and vehicles excrete sulphur, nitrogen oxide. These remain the environment for longtime. By chemical and photo chemical reactions, sulphuric acid and nitric acid are formed and combines with water vapor in the environment.

One country’s waste will be result in another countries acid rain. For example waste from factories and vehicles in India reaches environment and sulphur, corbondioxide will causes acid rain in Pakistan and China.

Acid rain refers to the ways in which acid form the atmosphere is deposited on the earth’s surface. Polluted things like sulphur, oxides and nitrogen oxides, coal, petroleum based coal then burn the smoke contributes to acid rain. Idol/ marbles will be leached because of acid rain. Leaves in the forests will be’dropped down. Acid rain when they falls on the leaves destroys it.

Secondary data is collected by the researcher from different documents. According to Roberta on and Wright, Secondary data are those already recorded for some other purpose but used in research project “it includes personal documents, public documents, books periodicals, abstracts, bibliographies and indexes, office Statistics, year Book, Encyclopedia, Directories and others.

The types of environment pollution are: 

Air Pollution Air pollution is caused by unwanted and rejected things in the atmosphere around us. According to Oxford dictionary air pollution means “The compound’s that get mixed with the atmosphere causes dangerous effects on useful plants, animals and human being.-,

Water Pollution: Water is essemial for all living things 2/3 portion on the earth is covered by water, 97.2% of water on earth is mixed with solids and rest 2.8% only is left for drinking purpose Water pollution occurs in three different forms

• Inland pollution. 
• Underground pollution 
• Sea pollution.

Noise Pollution: Intolerable sound is considered as sound pollution, because intense sound result in physical and mental stress and also irritation. Sound pollution is also result due to various activities of human begins. Intensity of sound is measured in decibels while talking usual intensity of sound is 60 decibels.

Soil Pollution: The upper most layer of the earth is consisted of “Soil” This soil layer is * formed by the natural processes from millions of years. This layer supplies the necessary nutrients essential for the growth of the plants. The soil which feeds the plants is the reason for the existence of all biological system.

The decrease in the quality of the soil and changes in it due to various activities of the humans is called as soil pollution. Soil pollution lessens the productive nature of the soil and destroys the living beings in it and also its rejuvinable process. 

The Progress means to a forward movement or an intended Growth.

Interview 

The very term implies “Interviewing is an interactional process, it is a mutual view of each other.

Structured Interview: It has predetermined questions and standard techniques. The number of questions is also fixed. In this method of interview, number and nature of questions, order of asking them, wording of questions, recording system and everything in the interview process is standardized.

Merits of structured Interview: 

• It provides safe basis for the generalization 
• In this method, interview’s bias can be restricted 
• It is more methodical and easy to administer.

Demerits. 

• The rigid and mechanical process, sometimes defeat the purpose of interview. It lacks the flexible nature and personal touch in interview 
• In this method, there is a possibility that substances of interview obtain less importance than formal process and set up.

Unstructured (Oral) Interview: It is not rigid type of interview. In this method, there is flexibility in the entire process of interview. The interview has greater freedom to choose the form depending on situations. The flexibility nature of interview allows the interview to ask number, sequence, and method of questions according to requirements of situations.

Merits of Unstructured Interview 

• The informal nature of interview creates a congenial atmosphere for effective communication 
• In a highly society of India, the formal set up interview imposes serve limitations on interview. Unstructured interview is the only remedy for this problem Demerits of Unstructured Interview
• The informal nature of interview provides respondents to answer differently, this is difficult in analysis of data 
• To administer this type of interview, well trained and skilled persons are required
• The more number of personal bias and prejudices may be the part of this method.

Acid rain: Factories and vehicles excrete sulphur, Nitrogen oxide. These remain the environment for longtime. By chemical and photo chemical reactions, sulphuric acid and nitric acid are formed and combines with water vapor in the environment. This is called ‘Acid Rain’.

One country’s waste will be result in another countries acid rain. For example waste from factories and vehicles in India reaches environment and sulphur, corbondioxide will causes acid rain in Pakistan and China.

Acid rain refers to the ways in which acid form the atmosphere is deposited on the earth’s surface. Polluted things like sulphur, oxides and nitrogen oxides, coal, petroleum based coal then bum the smoke contributes to acid rain. Idol/ marbles will be leached because of acid rain. Leaves in the forests will be dropped down. Acid rain when they falls on the leaves destroys it.

According to Ogbum and Nimkoff: “Accommodation is a term used by the sociologists to describe the adjustment of hostile individuals or groups”.

Maclver says that “the term Accommodation refers particularly to the process in which man attains a sense of harmony with his environment.

Characteristics of Accommodation: 

1. Accommodation is the natural result of Conflict: Since conflicts cannot take place continuously they involved in conflict do not relish the sense of conflict they sit down for it settlement. Such settlements temporary or permanent may be called “Accommodation” . in the absence of conflict the question of arriving at accommodation does not arise.

2. Accommodation may be a conscious or an unconscious: Man’s adjustment with the social environment is mostly unconscious. From birth to death man to be behave in conformity with the normative order. The new born individual leams to accommodate himself with the social order which is dedicated by various norms such as customs, morals, traditions etc. Thus, unconsciously the new born individual accommodation himself with his family, caste or race, neighborhood. Life is full of such unconscious accommodative activities.

3. Accommodation is Universal: Accommodation as a ‘condition’ and as a ‘process’ is universal. Human society is composed to antagonistic elements and hence conflicts are inevitable. Since no society becomes necessary. Thus accommodation is found in all societies and in all fields of social life.

4. Accommodation is continuous: The process of accommodation is not confined to any particular stage in the life of an individual It is not limited to any fixed social situation also. On the contrary, throughout the life one has to accommodate oneself with various situations, further, as and when conflicts take place sooner or later accommodation would follow not only the individuals but also the groups within the society are obliged to accommodate among themselves.

5. The effects of accommodation may vary with the circumstances: It may act to reduce the conflict between persons or groups as an initial step towards assimilation. It may serve to postpone outright conflict for a specific period of time, as in a treaty between nations or labor.

Management agreement. It may permit groups marked by sharp social-psychological distance to get along together. It may prove to be beneficial for the parties involved in it. Sometimes it may help the superior or more powerful party to party to impose it on the weaker party.

Religion: Religion is an individual as well as group phenomenon. It consists a body of believes, a set of practices, a range of moral prescriptions .covers the entire spear of human life from birth to death. It helps in spelling out the goals of life and for their realization, exercise powerful influence on the processes of socialization and social control, the sociology of religion studies the social contexts of religion; and the role of religion in shaping and reshaping the social order.

According to Durkheim in his book The elementary forms of Religious life defines Religion as a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things that is to say, things set apart and forbidden” 

James G: Frazer considered Religion as a belief in power superior to man which are believed to direct and control the course of nature and Human life.

Singer: in his book “Religion, Society, and the Individual” Religion, involves a group of people and a shared system of believers and practices. Every religion emphasizes the need for collective worship, festival and rituals are occasions which bring people together.

Durkheim a pioneering sociologist equates god with society, so much so that when you worship God you are worshipping your own society. According to Durkheim God is a human creation and a social at that god is, in fact, born in the collective experience of coming together, leading to rituals.

Interview: The very term implies “Interviewing is an interactional process, it is a mutual view of each other”. Merits of structured Interview: 

• It provides safe basis for the generalization 
• In this method, interview’s bias can be restricted 
• It is more methodical and easy to administer.

Demerits. 

• The rigid and mechanical process, sometimes defeat the purpose of interview. It lacks the flexible nature and personal touch in interview. 
• In this method, there is a possibility that substances of interview obtain less importance than formal process and set up.

Unstructured (Oral) Interview: It is not rigid type of interview. In this method, there is flexibility in the entire process of interview. The interview has greater freedom to choose the form depending on situations. The flexibility nature of interview allows the interview to ask number, sequence, and method of questions according to requirements of situations.

Merits of Unstructured Interview 

• The informal nature of interview creates a congenial atmosphere for effective communication. 
• In a highly diverse society of India, the formal set up interview imposes serve limitations on interview. Unstructured interview is the only remedy for this problem

Demerits of Unstructured Interview 

• The informal nature of interview provides respondents to answer differently, this is difficult in analysis of data 
• To administer this type of interview, well trained and skilled persons are required
• The more number of personal bias and prejudices may be the part of this method.

Merits of Interview method 

• It is possible to obtain highly reliable information and in depth knowledge 
• It is possible to obtain information about the past and also about future plans in a detailed manner. 
• There is a high rate of response 
• Interview method can be used with all types of persons.

Demerits of Interview method 

• There is a possibility of misleading information being given by the interview 
• There can be defects due to the interview who may not be the best person to give information 
• There can be defects due to the bias or prejudice of the interview himself. Interview is a difficult skill and needs training 
• It is a costly and time-consuming method.

The concept of socialization is one of the central concepts in sociology. It is a learning process by which an individual develops into a social being and is able to function in society. Child rearing, formal education, acculturation and role learning are all socializing processes that help to mould individuals to the ways of their society & culture.

The term Diversity denoting collective differences so as to find out dissimilarities among the people: geographical, religious, linguistic, etc. Thus all these differences presuppose collective differences or prevalence of variety of groups and culture. Indian society is characterized by unity as well as diversity.

The Nature of Diversities in India.

Primarily there are major four types of diversities in India, which are:

1. Regional Diversities 

2. Linguistic Diversities 

3. Religious Diversities 

4. Cultural and Ethnic Diversities

1. Regional Diversities: It is evident that there are extreme regional diversities in its geographic features. Indian territory contains huge mountains, thick forests, numerous rivers, and etc. ft is only in India that there are different regions, different types of climates and the temperatures. India is a vast country.

From the Himalayas in the North to the Indian Ocean in the south. There are difference in altitude, temperature, Flora, and Fauna. India has every conceivable type of climate, temperature, and physical configuration. There is the scorching heat of Rajastan and the biting cold of the Himalayas, Rainfall varies from 1200 to 7.5 cms per year.

The result is that India has some of the wettest and driest areas in die world. India also possesses arid desserts and fertile riverine lands, bare and hilly tracts, and luxuriant open plain.

2. Linguistic Diversities: Language is another source of diversity. It contributes to collective identities and even to conflicts. The Indian Constitution has recognized 22 languages in the 8^th schedule for its official purposes but as many as 1652 languages and dialects are spoken in the country.

According to Grierson’s Linguistic Survey of India, these languages belong to five linguistic families, namely; Indo-Aryan languages, Dravidian languages, Austric languages, Tibeto – Burman languages and European languages.

a. The Indo-Aryan languages including in the Sanskrit, Hindi, Bengali, Marati, Gujarathi, Oriya, Panjabi, Bihari, Rajasthani, Assami, Sindhi and Kashmiri languages spoken by 3/4^th of Indian population.

b. The Dravidian languages include Tamil, Kannada, Telugu, and Malayalam.

c. The Austric languages include Mundari, Santhali, Maithili, Dogri and etc.

d. Tibeto – Burman languages: Tribal languages and dialects of North and North-East India belong to this category. For example Manipuri, Bodo, Ladiki, Khuki, etc.

e. The European languages include English, Portuguese and French. These last two languages are spoken mostly people in Goa and Pondicherry.

This makes language planning and promotion difficult. But the mother tongue does evoke strong sentiments and reactions. As a consequence of this multiplicity, there is considerable bilingualism and administration has to use more than one language. Linguistic diversity has posed administrative and political challenges.

3. Religious Diversities: There are eight major religious communities in India. Hindus constitute 82.7%, Muslims 11.8%, Christians 2.6%, Sikhs 2%, Buddhists 0.7%, Jains 0.4%, Zoroastrians 0.3%, and Jews 0.1%. Each major religion is subdivided along the lines of religious documents, sects, and cults.

The Hindus are now broadly divided into Shaivite (worshippers of Shiva), Vaishnavaite (worshippers of Vishnu and his incarnations), Shakta (worshippers of the Mother Goddess in various manifestations). Even among them, there are subdivisions based on doctrinal arid ritual differences.

Buddhism was spread widely in India once, it lost its hold in the country of its birth and remained confined only to a few pockets. Jainism too once held wide sway in India, and though its followers are now numerically small, they are found in both the northern and southern States. They have two main divisions: Digamberun clothed, and Shwetamber. The Indian Muslims are divided broadly into the Sunni and Shia communities.

Indian Christians are divided into Roman Catholics and Protestants and into many denominational churches. Sikhism is synthesizing religion that emphasizes egalitarianism. Grantha Sahib is the holy book and Amritsar Golden Temple is one of their holy piligrimage. The Parsis are a small community, but they have played an important role in India’s industrial development. The Jewish has been established in India for over a millennium.

They also had White and Black divisions and prohibition on intermarriage and inter-dining, but they all worshipped in the same synagogues. The Jati-like restrictions are much less in Bombay and Cochin, to where many Jews have migrated.

4. Cultural and Ethnic Diversities: Another important source of diversity is the cultural diversity. The people differ considerably in their social habits. Cultural difference varies from state to state. The conflicting and varying shades of blood, strains, culture, and modes of life, the character, conduct, beliefs, morals, food, dress, manners, social norms, Socio-Religious customs, rituals and etc.

Causes cultural and ethnic diversities in the country. Dr. R.K. Mukherji rightly said that “India is a museum of cults and customs, creeds and culture, faiths and tongues, racial types and social systems”. Another important source Of diversity is the cultural identity of particular communities and region.

According to sociologist Dunkheim, “Education as the socialization of the younger generation, Is a continuous effort to impose on the child. Ways of seeing, feeling and acting, which could not be arrived at on one’s own. “This is a process of continuous activity that goes on all r through one’s life from birth to death.

Formal education is imported at educational institutions with strict adherence to rules and regulations with no width for human personality developments. Informal education is a spontaneous life long process of learning continuously and universally for refinement in oneself. This informal education starts for everyone in their family.

Family is the first school and mother is the first teacher is an age old deitum that puts in a nutshell the role of this informal education in moulding human nature and personality. Here one learns how to be part of a group, gained the responsibilities of each and the. benefits there of family gives a sense of belonging and there are always gives a sense of belonging and there are always people around to nudge one along the correct path. Whether big or small each family is an institution in itself. It one’s old age, the roles get reversed and one gets the opportunity to import knowledge to the succeeding generations. The circle is complete.

The major sources of primary data are Observation, Interview and Questionnaire.