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The two functions of secondary family are: 

• Economic function 
• Educational function 
• Religious function 
• Recreational function.

Auguste Comte

On the basis of structure, the family has been classified as (1) nuclear and (2) joint family. Nuclear family is one which consists of the husband, wife or wives and their children. The children leave the parental households as soon as they are married. A nuclear family is an autonomous unit free from the control of the elders. Since the newlyweds creates a separate residence the physical distance between parent and married child parent and grandparent minimized the interdependence between them. 

Joint family can be viewed as a merger of several nuclear families. Thus a small joint family may include an old man and his wife, their son, the son’s wife and the son’s children, two nuclear families, the son being a member of both. A large joint family may include the old man and his four wives, their unmarried children and married sons, and the son’s wives, their unmarried children. A joint family may be crammed into a single house, or it may occupy a cluster of houses within an joint family compound, or the houses mat be more widely dispersed than this.

The major sources of primary data are observation, interview, questionnaire, and social survey. 

In the 19^th century in Western Europe.

The term Society is derived from Latin word ‘Socius’ which means “companionship or friendship’ According to Maclver and Page “Society is the web of social relationships”.

Characteristics of society.

a. Society- The group of groups: People collets together to form groups. Such groups combine together to give rise to society. Each society has family, neighbor, village, city, labor association, religious gathering, Political Parties etc, H.M. Johnson – has thus remarked that “society is the group of groups”, but it is not just like a crowd. It is a system. It is a system. It consists of innumerable groups which fulfill the various needs of the people.

b. Society is a web of social relations : Social relation means - ’’The reciprocal contact between two or more persons. Social relationships have a wide range. For example Teacher – student, Parent-children, patient-doctor, husband-wife and so on. One individual enters in to several social relationships at the same time. Maclver and page- point out that “society exists only where social beings behave towards one another in ways determined by their recognition of one another. Thus society is a web of social relations.

c. Similarity or likeness: The principal of‘likeness’ is essential for society. It exists among the people have similarities with regards to their needs, work, aims, ideals, values and so on. these similarities inspire the people to interact and like each other and live to gather. Hence mutual intimacy, Co-operation, love and affection, sympathy, sacrifice and feeling of oneness among people develops. Similarly the people of same nature and behavior live together in society.

d. Differences in society: Likeness and differences are two faces of the same coin. Therefore we see natural differences among people in their interest, ability, talent, attitude, intelligence and so on. Thus we find farmers, labors. Teachers, soldiers, business, advocates, doctors, engineers and other working in different capacities, Maclver and page – Said that “primary likeness and Secondary differences are the chief features of human society.

e. Co-operation and division of labor: Human Society is essentially based on ‘co-operation and division of labor. Due to the feeling of Co-operation people share their joys and sorrows. The division of labor depends on people’s interest, ability, sex, and age etc. Due to division of labor in various fields task are performed more efficiently. In modem society, skilled and specialized persons have more importance. Thus co-operative and division of labor are reciprocal.

According to J.S. Roucek “Laws are a farm of social rule emanating from political agencies”.

The family: Family is the first agency of socialization of the child. Physical nearness, close relationship, passiveness of the child, authority of parents over the child etc., all have greater influence in moulding the personality of the child.

In family, parental influence, particularly of the mother, is very great. From the parents the child learns language. It is taught number of civic virtues. The child gets his first lessons in cooperation, tolerance self-sacrifice, love and affection, etc., in the family.

The earliest and the closet ties of an individual are with his parents and siblings. There have authority over the child. Possessiveness of the child and its emotional attachment with parents and siblings make socialization an easy and smooth process. Cultural heritage is passed from one generation to the other in family.

Ogburn and Nimkoff introduced the concept cultural tag.

According to Ogburn and Nimkoff: “Accommodation is a term used by sociologists to describe the adjustment of hostile individuals or groups”.

The social issues following the French Revolution in France.

Development of personality: Man is fundamentally a social being. He has to adjust to the changing conditions of the society. Sociology gives of scientific and a comprehensive knowledge of human society. The scientific knowledge about the structure of society, its development, change, problems, individual rights and obligations, etc., makes not only individual an enlighten member of the society, but also to the development of his personality in a proper manner.

a. Change in attitudes: Sociology is useful in developing rational attitude towards society, religion, customs, mores, institutions, values, ideologies, etc. Sociology plays an important role in changing the attitudes towards others. The study of Sociology helps us to overcome prejudices about others people, class, caste, religious hatredness, misconceptions ambitions. Totally Sociology helps us to develop a critical approach towards the social world, so that we can have better relations with the people of not only our society but also with the people of other societies.

b. Solutions of social problems: Every society is facing its own problems. For example, India is facing so many problems like poverty, unemployment, terrorism, corruption, untouchability, prostitution, gambling, over population, beggary, etc. The deep study of these problems is necessary to solve them. Sociology helps us to make an objective study of social problems. It also gives valuable suggestions to solve.

c. Social planning and policy making: Sociology is playing a key role in social planning and policy making. Sociological knowledge is very much useful and the service and suggestions of expert sociologists are sought even in the formulations of Government Policies, Social Legislations regarding family, population control, child labour, environment pollution, beggary, etc.

d. To promote welfare of the backward and weaker section of the society: In India, Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and other weaker sections are exploited in social, economic, and political fields for centuries. To promote welfare programmers for these groups sociological knowledge is necessary.

e. Sociology as an attractive teaching subject: Sociology is gaining importance as a popular teaching subject. Careers apart from teaching are now possible in Sociology. Sociology is introduced as one of the subject to be studied in many colleges and universities. Sociology is also included in the subjects to be offered by candidates taking completive examinations like IAS, IPS, IFS, KAS and KES, etc. There are many employment opportunities in many fields like education, social welfare, family welfare, public administration, women and child welfare development, etc.

f. Role of Sociology in developing countries: Social factors are also responsible for the economic backwardness particularly in under developed countries. Economists have now realized the importance of sociological information and knowledge in analyzing the economic life of their countries. So, it has been said that “Economists should be Sociologist also”.

g. Sociological knowledge about modern situations and developments: Sociology always gives information about the recent changes and developments that takes place in and around us, So that we can act according to the changes. The knowledge about these things makes us conscious about our responsibilities towards society.

1. Militant Society 

2. Industrial society.

Theological stage in this stage all human thoughts were guided by religious ideas and faith in the supernatural powers.

Use of machines and technological tools are common in modem society. Scientific development and approach towards making life more convenient, help the growth of society Ogbum and Nimkoff remark that the Most novel phenomena in society is not capitalism but Mechanization. The role of technology can be discovered in the following ways:

1. Transport and communication:After 18th century, we see big changes in society due to industrialization, communication and transportation. Such development took place only because of growth in technology. As a result now modern technology has changed the joint family system and its relationships. Communication skills, transportation methods changed to such extent that today human world is called as “Global Village”.

2. Growth of classes: Industrialization leads to growth of urbanization. Industrialization brought opportunities for new professions. Youths are provided new jobs. Along with it new “Class” system developed in society. Society is classified as upper middle and lower class.

3. Agriculture: Changes in the agricultural technology directly influenced rural community invention of new agricultural tools and techniques’ chemical manures brought increase in agricultural production which influenced standard of living in village.

Education and Family.

The School : School is also another important agent of socialization. Teachers in school play a decisive role in molding child’s personality. Since the family in itself is not fully equipped to prepare the child for adult roles, school has an important role to play. In the school the child gets his education which moulds his ideas and attitudes, school transmits not only required and knowledge but also important values such as cooperation, discipline, patriotism, friendship etc. it helps further development of intellectual, emotional and social development already begun in the family. It is a formal agency socializing the child authoritatively.

Only the earth has provided essential environment to all kinds of species. The earth has been evolved since 460 billions of years. Since then evolution has been taking place stage by stage. It is the existence of a wide variety of species- plants, animals and micro-organisms in a natural habitant within a particular environment or of genetic variation with in a species. All living organisms have maintained their specific quality. We find air, water and temperature on this earth including micro organisms, birds and butterflies, aquatic plants and animals, wild animals like Dinosaurs etc., all live on this earth.

1. Sociology is a categorical and not a normative discipline. 

2. Sociology is a pure and not a Applied science.

Analyzing the process of social change in India He introduced the concept of “Sanskritisation”, “Westernization” and “Dominate Caste”.

In day to day life, associations and institutions are used very commonly. Sometimes these words are used inter changeably to mean one and the same. But in Sociology these words have specific meaning

Definition of Association: According to E.S. Bogardus “Association is usually working together of people to achieve some common purpose”. According to William P. Scott “An Association refer to a formal group organised for a specialised and specifically stated pupose”.

Characteristics of Association: 

(a) Association – A Human Group: An association is formed by people. It is basically a social group. Without people there can be no association. However all groups are not associations. Because an association is basically an organized group. An unorganized ‘ group like a crowd or a mob cannot be an association.

(b) Specific Interest or Interests: An association is not only collection of individuals. But also consists of those individuals who have more or less the same interests. According those who have political interests may join political parties and those who have sports interest may join sports association and so on.

(c) Co-operative Spirit: An association is based on the cooperative spirit of its members. People work together to achieve common purpose. For example: Workers to work together on a co-operative basis in order to fulfill their objective of getting good working conditions.

(d) Organized Group: Association is not just a collection of individuals. It is an organized collections for some specific ends. Organization gives stability and proper shape to an association, organization refers to the way in which the status and roles are distributed among its members.

(e) Regulation of Relations: Every association has its own rules and regulation applicable to its members. These are called associational norms. Organization depends, on this elements of regulation. Association resorts to formal or informal means to regulate the relations of its members. For Example: Family through the institution of marriage controls the sexual behavior of its members, professional organization have formal norms to control members.

(f) Element of Stability : An association may be permanent or temporary. There are some long standing association like the political parties, trade union etc. Some associations may be purely temporary in nature, Example :Association that are established to felicitate some great writers, scientists and religious leaders. 

Oxford dictionary air pollution means “The compounds that get mixed with the atmosphere causes dangerous effects on useful plants, animals and human begin

Causes for Air pollution: Man’s activities in the name of the modernization have damaged the living species. Man’s activities are also responsible for polluting air, causing dirt, dust and smoke. The Natural disasters like volcanic eruption, forest fire and bacteria also cause air pollution. Man has created industries, vehicles, atomic energy, excessive use of Petrol and other source of energy like Coal, and different types of mining also cause air pollution.

Water Pollution: Water is essential for all living things 2/3 portion on the earth is covered by water, 97.2% of water on earth is mixed with solids and rest 2.8% only is left for drinking purpose. Water pollution occurs in three different forms. 

1. Inland pollution. 

2. Underground pollution 

3. Sea pollution.

Causes for water pollution: Water pollution is due to many factors. Factory wastes, Houses hold wastes and water from agricultural land, all these contributions to water pollution. Biological contamination like gutter water, food processing factories, skin and hide processing factories, insecticides, drugs, various chemical colours contributes to water pollution.

Noise Pollution: Intolerable sound is considered as sound pollution, because intense sound result in physical and mental stress and also irritation. Sound pollution is also result due to various activities of human begins. Intensity of sound is measured in decibels while talking usual intensity of sound is 60 decibels. 

Soil Pollution: The upper most layer of the earth is consisted of “soil” This soil layer is formed by the natural processes from millions of years. This layer supplies the necessary nutrients essential for the growth of the plants. The soil which feeds the plants is the reason for the existence of all biological system.

Methods of Accommodations: 

Accommodation arrangements between groups or individuals take variety of forms, Gillin and Gillin have mentioned. They are:

1. Yielding to coercion: Coercion involves the use of force or the threat of force for making the weaker party to accept the conditions of agreement. This can take place when the parties are of unequal strength in wars the victorious nation imposes its will on the vanquished. Various political dictatorship are also instances of coercive accommodation in which a strong minority group which seizes political power imposes its will on the masses.

2. Compromise: When the contending parties are almost equal in power they attain accommodation by means of compromise. In compromise each party to the dispute makes some concessions dnd yields to some demand of the other. The “all or nothing” attitudes gives way to willingness to give up certain points in order to gain others. Certain international agreements and management labour agreements on wages, hours of work are example of compromise. 

The role of third party in compromise: 

1. Arbitration: When the contending parties themselves are not able to resolve their differences they may resort to arbitration. Arbitration is a device for bringing about compromise in which a third party tries to bring about an end to the conflict. Here the decision of the third party is binding on both the parties. Labour management disputes some political disputes are often resolved in this way. 

2. Mediation: Mediation is more a kin to arbitration. This involves the introduction into the conflict of a neutral agent whose efforts are directed towards bringing about a peaceful settlements. But the mediator has no power to settle the conflict as but the mediator has no power to settle the conflict as such for his decisions are not binding on the parties. 

3. Conciliation: Closely related to compromise is conciliation. This is an attempt to persuade the disputants to develop friendship and come to an agreement. Conciliation has been used in industrial,racial and religious struggles. Conciliation implies a milder response to an opponent than coercion. In the end conciliation, like toleration opens the door to assimilation.

Member replacement and physical maintenance.

Types of Co-operation: 

The types of co-operation can be discussed in the following ways:

1. Direct Co-operation: In the direct cooperation action the individual involved to do the identical function. Ex. Playing together worshiping together, tilling the field together, taking out a cut from the mud, etc., people do work in company with other members, performance of a common task with joint efforts brings them social satisfaction. ‘ 

2. Indirect Co-operation: In this case people work individually for the attainment of a common end. People do tasks towards a similar end. This is based on the principle of division of labor and specialization. For ex. Farmers, spinners, weavers, dyers, tailors are different and engaged in different activities. But their end remains the same, that of producing clothes. The modem technological age requires specialization of skill and functions, hence it depends on Co-operation.

Sociologist have also spoken of three other types of Co-operation, namely primary Co-operation Secondary Co-operation and tertiary Co-operation. These types are witnessed in primary groups, secondary groups and between two or more groups respectively.

According to Land bury says that the “folkways are the typical or habitual beliefs, attitudes and style of conduct observed within a group or community.

Formal agencies 

1. The School: School is also another important agent of socialization. Teachers in school play a decisive role in molding child’s personality. Since the family in itself is not fully equipped to prepare the child for adult roles, school has an important role to play. In the school the child gets his education which moulds his ideas and attitudes, school transmits not only required and knowledge but also important values such as cooperation, discipline, patriotism, friendship etc. it helps further development of intellectual, emotional and social development already begun in the family. It is a formal agency socializing the child authoritatively.

2. The Mass Media: The print and audio-visual means of communication have a great role to play in child’s socialization. Newspaper, magazine, text books, television etc., play a lucid role in transmitting culture from one generation to the other. The state may also use them deliberately to educate the mass. They may be used purposively to change the value system.

In tradition and simple societies the agencies of socialization are limited and harmonious in influencing the personality of the individual. In complex societies, however, they are many and diverse agencies, at time working at cross purposes. 

3. State: The state plays an important role in socialization. It is an authoritarian agency. State makes laws for the people and lays down the modes of conduct expected of them. The people have to compulsorily obey these laws. The state has immense power at its command which helps the development of personality of an individual. This will help the individual to adjust with social situation. State makes arrangement to socialize people through the media and other means of communication. State teaches citizens to follow the rules of law and values. State motivates its citizens by rewarding for their achievements.

4. Informal agencies: The family is the first agency of socialization of the child. Physical hearness, close relationship, passivenass of the child authority of parents over the child etc., all have greather influence in moulding the personality of the child. In family parental influence, particularly of the mother is very great. From the parents the child learns language, the child gets his first lessons in cooperation tolerance, self-sacrifice, love and affection, etc., in the family

1. Social Statics 

2. Social Dynamic. 

Pure science is a branch for knowledge, without primary concern for practical use. Knowledge for knowledge sake is the main aim of a pure scientist. Scientists, who seek knowledge for its own sake, no more moved by the question of its, utility like the mother and the father who v protect and.nourish their children without calculating their usefulness. Many students researchers of science feel much the same thing about their work. Pure sciences (physics, chemistry, biology, botany, physiology, psychology, anthropology, political science, sociology, etc) are concerned with the advancement of knowledge.

Their main aim is to investigate the underlined principles of the natural and social world which sustain and change in the natural and social order. They are not concerned with the practical applications of their results or curing the immediate ills of natural or social orders. The goal of each natural science, including Sociology, is the formulation of scientific laws.

Sociology is a pure science, not an applied one. The immediate goal of Sociology is the acquisition of knowledge about the human society, not the utilization of that knowledge.

Lack of New Inventions and fear.

Social ecology to carryout studies on how living begins continuously adjust themselves to the environment around them.

The word “mores” is a Latin term and it represented the ancient Roman’s most respected and even sacred customs.

The word Environment is derived from the French word “Environ” which means all that surrounds us. Environment which is helpful to man’s existence and progress has been divided into physical, . biological and social environments.

1. Physical Environment: It consists of earth, water, mountains and hills, forests, planets, stars, lakes, minerals sources etc., This is called Physical or Natural Environment. The Physical Environment is not created by man: Hence it is called the Natural environment.

2. Biological Environment: This category of environment includes all living things on earth, for the production and growth of all living creatures, environment is complimentary and protecting. 

3. Social Environment: Social Environment is man-made. Social environment is nothing but the collective and cooperative life of human begins. Sociologists feel that “man is a social animal and one cannot live without society”. For the survival of mankind there . must be a cordial relationship with environment. 

Natural factor or Geographical factors: 

(i) Change brought by natural conditions or change brought by environment is called as physical factor or geographical factors. Man and society exist within the environment. Whenever change occur in environment it brings change in society too.

(ii) According to Ian Robertson, relationship between social and environmental factors bring change in society. We find less change in polar region. More on banks of river. When society grows complex. It brings more loss on geographical factors. Civilization brings convenience to man but develops controversies with environment.

(iii) Recently because of technological and scientific developments we find less influence of physical factor. Growth of culture and civilization minimize the influence of geography. 

Animal Ecology and Social Ecology. 

Being one of the pioneers of Sociology, August Comte is the first who introduced the term “Sociology”. Therefore the credit of calling “Father of Sociology” goes to him. August Comte was the first to introduce a new science called “Sociology” and a brief note of his contribution confirms a new era for the study of Sociology.

He used the word “Sociology” for the first time in his famous work “positive Philosophy” during 1839. He called Sociology as the scientific study of society. He wanted that this science of society should explain the laws of the social world like natural sciences explain the laws of the physical world.

August Comte insisted that the study of society needs scientific method with objectivity. He believed that theoretical science of society and a systematic investigation of behaviour were needed to improve society.

August Comte divided Sociology into two parts. They are : (1) Social statics and (2) social dynamics. Social statics deals with major institutions such as family, economy, religion, etc. Social dynamics deals with the issue of social change and social progress. Now these words are called in the name of social structure and social change respectively.

According to August Comte, there is a direct relation between intellectual ity and social progress. Related to this he explains law of three stages. They are:

1. The Theological stage: During this stage all human thoughts were guided by religious ideas and faith in the supernatural powers. It emphasises the belief that everything is attributed to a particular God.

2. The metaphysical stage: During this stage, all human thought were guided by “abstract forces” like nature. It is almost like philosophical inquiry into the nature.

3. The positive or scientific stage: This is what the stage that everything based on intellectual way of thinking, looking the world. Through this theory Comte tried to establish the fact that man became more and more rational and scientific in his approach. Comte introduced a theory of classification of sciences. Through this theory, he emphasized that there is interrelation and interdependence of social sciences.

August Comte as a supporter of the moral order in the society says that sociologists have taken responsibility of priesthood of humanity and should solve the problems of the society. August Comte’s contribution to literature are “Positive Philosophy” and “Positive Polity”.

The concept of socialization is one of the central concepts in sociology. It is a learning process by which an individual develops into a social being and is able to function in society. Child rearing, formal education, acculturation and role learning are all socializing processes that help to mould individuals to the ways of their society & culture. Socialization begins almost at birth and continues throughout life.

The human infant comes into the world as a biological organism with animal needs. It is gradually moulded into social being and he learns the social ways of acting and feeling. Without this process of moulding the society could not continue itself, nor could culture exists, nor could the individual becomes a person. This process of moulding is called “Socialization”.

According to H. M. Johnson: “Socialization in the learning process that enables the learner to perform social roles”.

According to Ogburn & Nimkoff: “Socialization is the process by which the individual learns to conform to the norms of the group”.

On the basis of above given definition we can draw the fact that socialization is a learning process by which one acquires the culture of his group. This will help an individual to develop his ‘Self concept. He is converted into an active member of the community.

The upper layer of the earth is consisted of ‘Soil’. This soil layer is formed by the natural processes from millions of years. This layer supplies the necessary nutrients essential for the growth of the plants. The soil which feeds the plants is the reason for the existence of tin biological system.

The decrease in the quality of the soil and changes in it due to various activities of the humans is called as soil pollution: Soil pollution lessens the productive nature of the soil and destroys the living beings in it and also its rejuvinable process.

Effects of soil Pollution : Soil is one of the main sources of the nature of pollution of the soil will leads to so many negative effects.

• Reduction in the crop yield. 
• The food obtained by the contaminated soil will spoil the human health. 
• Soil contamination leads to the water scarcity in some regions causing the death of animal multitude. 
• Contamination of soil will leads to the water pollution.

George Simmel has distinguished four types of conflict 

(a) war 

(b) feud or rational strife 

(c) litigation 

(d) conflict of impersonal ideas.

(a) War: According to Simmel war represents a deep seated antagonistic impulse in men. But to bring out this impulse into action some define objectives is needed. The objective may be the desire to gain material interests.

(b) Feud and factional strife: This is an intra-group conflict. It may arise because of injustice alleged to have been done by one group to another.

(c) Litigation: Litigation is a judicial form of conflict. It is a judicial struggle by an individual or group to protect right to possessions. This kind of conflict is more objectives in nature.

(d) Conflict of impersonal ideas: This is a conflict carried on by the individuals not for themselves but for an ideal. In such a conflict each party attempts to justify truthfulness of its own ideas. For ex, the communists and Capitalists carry on conflicts to prove that their own system can bring in a better world order.

Culture and human society are the two faces of the same coin. They always go together. Culture is the unique feature that differentiates human society from animals. Man is not only a social animal, but also a cultural animal, every man can be considered as a representative of the culture. Therefore culture can also be considered an important agency of social change.

According to Robert Bierstedt “ Culture is the Complex whole that consists of everything we think and do and have as members of society.

According to Malinowski: “culture is the handiwork of man and the medium through which he achieves his ends”. According to Edward B.Tylor “Culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge beliefs, arts, morals, law, custom, language and any other capabilities acquired by man as a member of society”.

Importance or function of competition: 

Competition plays an important role in social life. Competition performs a number of useful functions in society. Some of them may be noted here

1. Source of motivation: Competition is a source of motivation for the individuals. It makes the individual to show his ability and express the talent. It increases individual efficiency. Assigns statuses to the individuals: Competition assigns individuals their respective place in the social system. Social status and competition are always associated Some people complete with others to retains their status, other complete to enhance their status. 

2. Provides for new experiences: As Ogburn and Nimkoff has pointed the individuals better opportunities to satisfy their desires for new experiences and recognition. As far as the group is concerned Competition means experimental charge.

3. Competition contributes to Socio-economic progress: Fair Competition is conducive to economic as well as social progress. It even contributes to general welfare because it spurns individuals and groups on to exert their best efforts. When the Competition is directed to promote the general interests of community as a whole, it can bring about miraculous results.

4. Provides for social mobility: As far as the individual is concerned. Competition implies mobility and freedom. The spirit of Competition helps the individual to improve his social status.

The importance of Co-operation are: 

1. Co-operation is Universal and Continuous: It is a form of social process is not only universal but also continuous. Co-operation makes possible same understanding and adjustment between individuals and groups without which social life is impossible. Cooperation is hailed as the very basis of the communication life of men.

2. Perception of common goals: Individual indulging in Cooperative interaction are aware of some goals. The goal may be winning a victory in a battle, winning a hockey match, students making a combined study and so on perception of a common goal often draws people together.

3. Collective work for common rewards: Co-operation involves combined or collective efforts, rewards are normally shared by them, for example the reward may be match victory or profit shared in an industry. 

4. Co-operation is not necessarily unselfish: It is generally believed to be unselfish, but men may also find that their selfish goals are best served by working together with their fellows. Groups may Co-Operate for self-advancement as in the case of a monopoly or mutual protection, or for the welfare of all groups.

5. Essential conditions of Co-operation:According to Young and Marck Co-operation takes under some conditions. They are as follows. Firstly, Co-operation requires a motivation to seek a goal. Secondly, people must have some knowledge of the benefits of Co-operative activity. This requires some kind of education and must have a favorable attitude towards sharing both the work and the rewards involved.

6. Psychological qualities necessary for the developing Cooperative attitudes: Co-operation requires sympathy and identification, Sympathy depends upon the capacity of the individual to imagine himself in the place of another, particular when the other person is in difficulties, Mutual aid is another name for Co-operation. Co-operation is possible only when there is like mindedness. Similarity of purpose, mutual awareness, mutual understanding, mutual helpfulness and selfless attitudes.

Correct answer is (B) 3πr²

Correct option is: (C) \(\frac{1-\sqrt{3}}{2\sqrt{2}}\)