Explore topic-wise InterviewSolutions in Current Affairs.

“Human Geography is the study of changing relationship between unresting man and unstable Earth.” said Miss Semple.

Lingayaths and Vokkaligas.

Kathleen Gough presented a five-fold typology of peasant movements in India. They are:

1. Restorative rebellions 

2. Religious movements 

3. Social banditiy

4. Terrorist vengeance and 

5. Mass insurrections

1. Restorative Rebellions: This type of movement is aimed at the restoration of old systems in place of the current systems. The Santal tribal agitation against the British is one example of this type of movement.

2. Religious Movements: This type of movement is based on the belief that their consolidated efforts would bring about a golden period and a charismatic leader will free them of their misery. Such movements are therefore called as ‘Millennium movements’ or ‘Messianic movements’. Stephen Fuchs, however, states that more than 50% of the peasant movements in India are religious movements. An example is the Kerala’s Mapillai agitations from 1836 to 1921.

3. Social Banditry: Looting the rich landlords of villages and distributing the loot among the poor is termed as Social banditry. This arises as an expression of anger against feudal landlords; and the bandits become heroes in the eyes of the villagers. Dacoity by thugs between the 17^th and 18^th century in the Central India, and dacoity by Narasimha Reddy and his team in Kurnool, Andhra Pradesh, during 1946-47 are some examples for this type of movement.

4. Terrorist Vengeance: Revenge is the sole motive of such movements. Such movements involve elimination of individuals who are thought to be enemies. Feudal lords, corrupt government officials are often victims of such homicidal acts.

5. Mass Insurrections: This type of movement is spontaneous in nature. They are often triggered by dissatisfaction over long pending issues. Initially, dissent is expressed through strikes, non-cooperation, shouting slogans, boycott, etc.

They turn violent when the authority attempts to control them by the use of force. Such movements are often not backed by ideologies or charismatic leaders. For example, in recent years in Delhi, a movement against corruption and violence against women.

Lingayaths and Vokkaligas.

• Kagodu Sathyagraha and 
• Malaprabha farmers’ agitation.

Human geography studies the inter relationship between the physical and cultural environment. It emphasises on human creations and developments by the natural influences like relief, Drainage, soils, climate in which temperature, rainfall, humidity, wind etc vegetation, land forms are the elements of physical environment.

where as cultural environment such as houses, villages, cities, road, rail networks, industries etc’ these are created by human being through their activiites by human being through their activities based on the opportunities provided by the physical environment.

Thus, the physical environment has been greatly modified by human beings; at the same human life is also influenced by nature. Human being were able to develop technology through their struggle with the environment and better understanding a natural laws.

Kathleen Gough presented a five-fold typology of peasant movements in India They are:

1. Restorative rebellions 

2. Religious movements 

3. Social banditry 

4. Terrorist vengeance 

5. Mass insurrections.

Meaning of Human development: Human development is “development that enlarges people’s choice and improves their lives”. Standard of living & where people can live meaningful lives. Such as healthy, able to develop their talent, Participate in the activities of society etc.

Measurements of Human Development: Human development is measured with –

I. The Human development Index. 

II. The Human poverty Index.

I. The Human development index: It is measured in three dimensions.

• Health: Good health results of higher life expectancy means the people have a greater chance of living longer and health. 
• Education: Based on the literacy rate development and status of a persons decides. 
• Decent standard of living: It is measured in terms of purchasing power (in US dollars).

II. The Human poverty index: It measures the short fall in human development in following indices.

• The probability of not surviving till the age of 40. 
• The adult illiteracy rate. 
• The number of people who are not able drink pure water. 
• The number of small children who are under weight.

Mumbai and Kolkata.

The movement of people from one place to another place is know as Migration.

Causes of Migration : Migration is caused by a variety of factors including economic, social and political factors. 

Some of them are briefly discussed below.

• Marriage : Every girl has to migrate to her husband’s place after marriage, thus the entire female population of India has to migrate over short or long distance. 
• Employment : The agricultural base of rural areas does not provide employment to all the people living here. In contrast, urban areas provide vast scope for employment in industries, trade, transport & services. Hence people like to migrate towards the urban areas. 
• Education : Educational facilities are very low in the rural areas especially those of higher education and rural people have to migrate to the urban centers for this purpose. 
• Lack of security : Large number of people have migrated out of Jammu and Kashmir and Assam during the last few years due to disturbed conditions there. In this situation, people would like to migrate towards well secure areas.

1. IRDP. 

2. MGNREGA.

• Pipelines have become more popular for transporting certain products for lpng distances. 
• USA has a large network of pipelines. They are transporting natural gas, petroleum and refined products. 
• BIG INCH is the famous pipelines which carries pertroleum from Gulf of Mexico to the north-east states. 
• About 17% of all commodities is carried through pipelines in USA. 
• In Europe pipeline system was laid to distribute refined products from sea ports to inland markets. 
• In Africa, Pipe lines are found in Nigeria and other countries to carry crude oil and natural gas production. 
• In New Zealand Milk is being supplied through Pipelines from farms to factories. 
• China has one of the most impressive networks of pipelines. 
• India has good network of pipelines connecting oil ports and gas fields, refineries and markets. 
• Turkmenistan in Central Asia. Asia has extended pipelines to Iran and also parts of china.

McDonaldization is a process by which the principles of fast food restaurants are coming to dominate more on the society.

The term diversity denoting collective differences so as to find out dissimilarities among groups of people: geographical, religious, linguistic, etc. All these differences presuppose collective differences or prevalence of variety of groups and cultures. Indian society is characterized by unity as well as diversity.

Primarily there are four major types of diversities in India, which are:

1. Regional diversities 

2. Linguistic diversities 

3. Religious diversities and 

4. Cultural and Ethnic Diversities

1. Regional Diversities: India is a vast country. From the Himalayas in the North to the Indian Ocean in the south, there are quite a lot of differences in altitude, temperature, Flora, and Fauna. India has every conceivable type of climate, temperature, and physical configuration. There is the scorching heat of Rajasthan and the biting cold of the Himalayas, Rainfall varies from 1200 to 7.5 ems per year.

The result is that India has some of the wettest and driest areas in the world. India also possesses arid desserts and fertile riverine lands, bare and hilly tracts, and luxuriant open plain.

2. Linguistic Diversities: Language is another source of diversity. It contributes to collective identities and even to conflicts. The Indian Constitution has recognized 22 languages in the 8th schedule for its official purposes but as many as 1652 languages and dialects are spoken in the country. These languages belong to five linguistic families, namely; Indo – Aryan languages, Dravidian languages, Austric languages, Tibeto – Burman languages and European languages.

This makes language planning and promotion difficult. But the mother tongue does evoke strong sentiments and reactions. As a consequence of this multiplicity, there is considerable bilingualism and administration has to use more than one language. Linguistic diversity has posed administrative and political challenges. Apart from that for people with different mother tongues, communication becomes a problem.

3. Religious Diversities: There are 8 major religious communities in India. Hindus constitute the majority followed by Muslims, Christians, and Sikhs. Buddhists, Jains, Zoroastrians, and Jews are less than 1% each. Each major religion is further divided along the lines of religious documents, sects, and cults. Hindus are broadly divided into Shaivites, Vaishnavaites and Shaktas (worshippers of Shiva, Vishnu, and Mother Goddess – Shakthi respectively) and other minor sects.

Even though they took birth in India, both Jainism and Buddhism have lost their hold in India and are confined to a few small pockets. Diganibars and Shwetambars are the two divisions of Jains. Indian Muslims are broadly divided into Shias and Sunnis. Indian Christians, apart from Roman Catholics and Protestants have other small regional denominational churches.

Sikhism is a synthesizing religion that emphasizes egalitarianism. Parsis even though a small community has played an important role in India’s industrial development. The Jews have a white and black division.

4. Cultural and Ethnic Diversities: Another important source of diversity is the cultural diversity. The people differ considerably in their social habits. Cultural difference varies from state to state. The conflicting and varying shades of blood, strains, culture, and modes of life, the character, conduct, beliefs, morals, food, dress, manners, social norms, Socio-Religious customs, rituals and etc.

Causes cultural and ethnic diversities in the country. Dr. R.K. Mukherji rightly said that “India is a museum of cults and customs, creeds and culture, faiths and tongues, racial types and social systems”.

1. Reformatory movements. 

2. Revolutionary movements.

Globalization refers to the Growing interdependence of societies across the world with the spread of same culture and economic interests across the globe.

Water Conservation refers to the action taken to use water effeciently. It involves the controlling, protecting, managing & planning for the wise use of our scarce water resources.

The following strategies can be adopted for conservation of water.

• Reducing run-off losses : It can be achieved by using contour cultivation, terrace fanning, mulching, water storage structures like farm ponds.
• Reduction of irrigation losses : It can be reduced by drip and sprinkler irrigation, use of lined or covered canals to reduce seepage. 
• Re-use of water : The treated waste water can be used for watering .gardens, washing vehicles and floors of the building. It helps in saving fresh water. 
• Prevention of wastage of water : Preventing by closing taps when not in use, repairing any leakage from pipes and using small capacity flush in toilets.

Institutions and Technology.

Europe has the highest density of rail. Network in the world. It has about 4,40,000 kms of railway track.

• Marmary is the first continental under water railway line. It is between Asia and Europe. It is about 13 Kms through Bosporus strait (sea of Marama) & was opened in 2013. 
• Railways are more in Russia. From Moscow major lines radiating to different parts of the Country. 
• North America has one of the most extensive rail Networks accounting for nearly 40% of the World’s total. 
• Chile rail route connects the coastal centres, mining centres as well as interior. Peru, Bolivia, Eurador, Colombia, Venezuela.
• In Asia rail Network is the most dense in Japan, China & India. Japan has 20,035 kms of rail routes. 
• Africa has 82,000 kms of Railway route in which 18000 kms lies in South Africa alone due to the concentration of gold, diamond and copper mines. Africa has many major railway route which connects Benguela, Katanga, Zambia, Botswana, Zimbabwe. 
• The Tranzam-great Churn railway is connecting the Copper mines of Zambia with the port of Dar-es-Salam of Tanzania. 
• The Benguela railway links the Copper mines of Zaire with the Atlantic coast ports via Angola. 
• The Blue train run for from Cape Town to Pretoria in the republic of South Africa. 
• The Algeria, Senegal, Nigeria, Kenya, Ethiopia railway lines connects the port cities to interior centres.

Sprinkler Irrigation : 

• The spraying of water to the crops through the pipe with nozzles under great pressure is called‘Sprinkler irrigation’. 
• In this method water consuming is less but provides more moisture to the plants. 
• The adoption of this system is more expensive. 
• It is more popular in Punjab, Harayana, Rajasthan, Karnataka and Gujarat.

Drip Irrigation :

• A newly developed irrigation system, orginally developed in Israel is becoming popular in areas with water scarcity. This source of irrigation was introduced in India in the seven-ties. 
• In 2005, the area under drip irrigation was 6.3 Lakh hectares. 
• In this system a small amount of water passes through pipe falls drop by drop just at the position of roots or a limited area around the plant.

The Controlling measures of Migration are :

• Expand the civic amenties to villages as well as cities. It can control Rural to Urban migration. 
• Develop transport facilities between the city and surrounding rural areas. 
• Create more employment opportunities in the surrounding rural areas of the city.
• Develop satellite towns around big cities with all basic amenities. 
• Encourage labourers to live in the satellite towns rather than in big cities. 
• Develop Industrial areas outside the cities.

Agriculture is the most important Primary activity and the oldest occupation of human beings in India.

• Main source of livelihood: About 70% of the people directly and indirectly depend on agriculture for their Livelihood. 
• Food supply: Agriculture provides food grains, fruits, vegetables, spices etc to the people and fodder for the animals. 
• Provides employment facilities: Agriculture is largest sector providing highest employment. 
• Source of National income: It contributes to the national income .of the country. 
• Source of raw materials for Agro-based-industries ex: Raw cotton, sugar cane and Jute. 
• Source of large amount of revenue to the government. 
• Support to tertiary sector like transport, communication, banking, insurance etc. 
• Help to internal trade like Agricultural products are transported from the area of surplus production to the area scarcity.
• Support to export, many agricutlural products produced in the country are exported i.e. tea, coffee, Jute, Tobacco etc. 
• Political & Social situation in the country is determined by the agricultural production

• Increased use of varieties of fuels such as coal, petrol and diesal. 
• Increase in emission of Toxic Gases from Industrial activities into the Atomosphere. 
• Mining activities release dust in the air. 
• Important Pollutants are oxides of sulpher and nitrogen, hydro carbons, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide lead and asbestos.

Imports of India : Imports trade of India refers to buying goods from foreign countries and bringing them to home country. The main items of Imports of India are :

1. Petroleum crude and products :

• It is the most important materials of Indian.Imports. 
• In 2006-2007 India imported rupees 2,58,572 crores worth of crude oil and other petroleum products. 
• It contributed 23% of our total imports.

2. Pearls precious and semi precious stones : India imported rupees 33,881 crores worth of precious stone.

3. Capital goods : In 2006-2007 India imported rupees 2,51,136 crores worth of capital goods.

4. Fertilizers : India is a major importer of chemical Fertilizers. It is because the country is agrarian and the Internal production of fertilizers is insufficient. Potash fertilizers are largely imported.

Exports of India : Export trade of India refers to the sale of goods and services by India to other countries of the world.

The main items of our exports are as follows :

• Agricultural and Allied products: Products such as cereals, pulses tobacco, spices, nuts and seeds, oil meals, caster oil etc. During 2011-2012 exports income is about US dollar 13300.63 million. 
• Ores and minerals: Export of ores and minerals like Iron ore, Manganese, Micca was estimated at US dollar 4700.29 million during 2011-12. 
• Gems and Jewellery: India imports gems and precious stones in their raw form and . exports them after proper cutting and polishing. 
• Electronic goods: Items under this group of consists of machinery, iron, steel and other engineering items.
• Petroleum products: Export of petroleum products increased to US dollar 34667.02 million.

Scope of human Geography: 

As early societies became more successful in meeting their need with in permanent settlements.

• The rise of agriculture activities resource extra and manufacturing activities led to more complex economic and political boundaries were created and more settlement grew into towns and cities. 
• The physical environment also changed with the influence of modem urbanize and industrialized world that we known today. 
• One of the greatest challenges faced by humans today is how to manage energy resource in a sustainable fashion without inflicting permanent damage to environment in the form of land, air, water, pollution and climatic changes.

Importance of Human Geography:

• It clarifies the societies and cultures in different locations. 
• The great diversity reflects through the fashion life. 
• Which realizes carrying capacity of the Earth. 
• It helps us to understand circumstances affecting people and nation. 
• It is helpful to the planners, administrations, Industrialists and others.

Factors influencing on HDI of India are discussed below:

• Birth and Death Rate : Declining of birth rate has been much slower than that of the death rate. This results in rapid increase of population. It affects on slow economic growth of the country. It is the main cause for declining of human development index.
• Life Expectancy : Life Expectancy has gone up 65.77 years for males 67.95 years females respectively in 2011-12. This is due to the consequence of the expansion of food security and medical facilities. It helps to raise the HDI in the country.
• Food and Nutrition : According to the 2011 Global Hunger Index (GHI) report, India has 15^th rank among the leading countries with hunger situation.
• The World Bank estimates that India is one of the highest ranking countries in the World for the number of children suffering from malnutrition. 
• It is adversely affecting the Human development.
• Literacy : Education is the key for socio-economic progress. The Indian literacy rate grew to 74.04% in 2011 from 12% at the end of the British rule in 1947. The large proportion of illiterate females is another reason for the low literacy rate in India. Due to this there is decline in the Human development Index of the country.

Factors influencing on HDI of India are discussed below:

1. Birth and Death Rate : Declining of birth rate has been much slower than that of the death rate. This results in rapid increase of population. It affects on slow economic growth of the country. It is the main cause for declining of human development index.

2. Life Expectancy : Life Expectancy has gone up 65.77 years for males 67.95 years females respectively in 2011-12. This is due to the consequence of the expansion of food security and medical facilities. It helps to raise the HDI in the country.

3. Food and Nutrition : According to the 2011 Global Hunger Index (GHI) report, India has 15th rank among the leading countries with hunger situation.

• The World Bank estimates that India is one of the high estran king countries in the Vor1d for the number of children suffering from malnutrition. 
• It is adversely affecting the Human development.

4. Literacy : Education is the key for socio-economic progress. The Indian literacy rate grew to 74.04% in 2011 from 12% at the end of the British rule in 1947. The large proportion of illiterate females is another reason for the low literacy rate in India. Due to this there is decline in the Human development Index of the country.

5. Poverty : 

• India suffers from a lot of Poverty which means that many people here do not have enough money. 
• Poverty has reflected in poor quality of life, hunger, malnutrition, illiteracy and consequent low level of human development.

• It is most convenient, efficient and cheap mode of transporting products like crude oil and refined products, gas, water and milk. 
• At present solid materials are also transported through pipeline after converting them into slurry.

Advantages of Pipelines :

• Pipelines can be laid through difficult terrain and also through water. 
• The initial cost of laying the pipelines is high but the subsequent cost of maintainence and operation is low. 
• Pipelines ensure a steady supply and minimizes transshipment losses and delays. 
• Pipelines operation involves very low consumption of energy and keeps the environment free from pollution. 
• Pipeline regions unites industrial regions.

Disadvantages:

• The capacity of pipelines cannot be increased once they are laid. 
• The security of pipelines in certain areas and the detection of leakage are difficult. 
• The construction of pipelines are expensive.

Importance of Human Geography: 

• It clarifies the societies and cultures in different locations. 
• The great diversity reflects through the fashion life. 
• Which realizes carrying capacity of the Earth. 
• It helps us to understand circumstances affecting people and nation. 
• It is helpful to the planners, administrations, Industrialists and others.

Factors influencing on HDI of India are discussed below:

1. Birth and Death Rate : Declining of birth rate has been much slower than that of the death rate. This results in rapid increase of population. It affects on slow economic growth of the country. It is the main cause for declining of human development index.

2. Life Expectancy : Life Expectancy has gone up 65.77 years for males 67.95 years females respectively in 2011-12. This is due to the consequence of the expansion of food security and medical facilities. It helps to raise the HDI in the country.

3. Food and Nutrition : According to the 2011 Global Hunger Index (GHI) report, India has 15th rank among the leading countries with hunger situation.

• The World Bank estimates that India is one of the high estran king countries in the Vor1d for the number of children suffering from malnutrition. 
• It is adversely affecting the Human development.

4. Literacy : Education is the key for socio-economic progress. The Indian literacy rate grew to 74.04% in 2011 from 12% at the end of the British rule in 1947. The large proportion of illiterate females is another reason for the low literacy rate in India. Due to this there is decline in the Human development Index of the country.

Commercial facilities and buildings are yet another source of solid waste today. Some of the solid wastes generated from these places include plastics, food wastes, metals, paper, glass, wood, cardboard materials, special wastes and other hazardous wastes.

• Sewage disposal 
• Urban runoff
• Toxic effluents from industries 
• Run-off over cultivate lands and nuclear power plants.

Meaning – The data which are collected for the first time by a researcher or groups of researchers, institution or organizations are called Primary sources of data.

Types of Primary data collection:

• Through Personal interview : Personal interviews are the most commonly used method of collecting data, because the interviewer has the opportunity of explaing the study and answering any question, here the researcher gets direct information from the respondents. 
• By Personal observations: It refers to the collection of data or information by individual or group of individuals, through direct observations in the field. 
• By Questionnaire : The most common method used in surverys is the Questionnaire. In this method, simple questions and their possible answers are written on a plain paper, and the respondents have to tick mark the possible answers from given choices. 
• Others methods :
• Telephone interview : In this method, the researcher/interviewer can collect the information over the telephone. 
• Measuring properties: In this method, the data about properties of soil nd water collected directly from the field by measuring their characteristics using soil and water quality kit.

Meaning of Human development : Human development is “development that enlarges people’s choice and improves their lives”. Standard of living & where people can live meaningful lives. Such as healthy, able to develop their talent. Participate in the activities of society etc.

Measurements of Human Development: Human development is measured with –

1. The Human development Index. 

2. The Human poverty Index, 

1. The Human development index: It is measured in three dimensions.

• Health: Good health results of higher life expectancy means the people have a greater chance of living longer and health. 
• Education: Based on the literacy rate development and status of a persons decides. 
• Decent standard of living: It is measured in terms of purchasing power (in US dollars).

2. The Human poverty index: It measures the short fall in human development in following indices.

• The probability of not surviving till the age of 40. 
• The adult illiteracy rate. 
• The number of people who are not able drink pure water. 
• The number of small children who are under weight.

The Population growth in India between 1 90 I and 2u 11 can be divided into four stages as follows.

• 1901 – 1921 Stagnant population growth. 
• 1921 – 1951 Steady growth. 
• 1951 – 1961 Rapid high growth. 
• 1981 – 2011 High growth with definite signs of slowing down.

1. In the first stage : In this decade, population growth was naturally curbed with the outbreak of Plague. Cholera. Malaria, influenza and other epidemics. Thus the decade considered as the great divide in the history of Indian Census.

2. In the second stage : The population can be considered as moderate The population growing from about 251 million (1921) to 361 million (1951), an increase of about 110 million. The main reason was decline in death rate due to control if epidemics like Plague. Cholera etc.

3. The third stage : is very important, because of the growth rate of population very high. The Population grew from 361 million (1951) to 686 (198!). an increase of about 325 million. The growth has been very rapid after independence. The government of India was implemented man Socio-Economical Programs in all sectors.

4. The fourth stage : It completely differs from other three stages, Here the trend of growth rate of population is gradually slowing down. We can easily justify that the period from 1981 to 2011 is referred to as a high growth with definite signs of slowing down.

• Household or Domestic establishment 
• Industrial or Commercial establishment

1. Household or Domestic establishment 

2. Industrial. or Commercial establishment.

Industrial region refers to the continuous development of industrial landscape, over a large area by concentration of a number of factories of different industries. in short, it is a wide area of manufacturing industries. :

1. Mumbai-Pune Industrial regions: It is the biggest and most important industrial region of the country. Opening of the Bhorghat to Pune in 1830, opening of steamer service through Suez Canal in 1843, opening of first railway line of 32 km in 1853 between Mumbai and Thane etc. Supports lot of development of industries in this region by the British who got the Mumbai island as marriage gift of Catherine Braganza’s dowry in 1661.

2. Kolkata-Hooghly Industrial region: It is an old atid important industrial region of the country. Kolkata is the main centre for Hoogigly basin, port., rich hinterland of Ganga and Bramaputra plain, Assam and Bengal tea plantations, coal and iron ore region of Chotanagapur plateau. Cheap labour from West Bangal Bihar, Orissa states. effecient transport by rail, road and waterways etc. are the important facIIitis supported to dc elop this region.

3.Ahmedabad-Vadodara Industrial region : It is thrid largest industrial region of the country. It is located in Gujarat and includes the areaš around the Gulf of Khambhat and important industrial centres like Ahmedabad, Vadodara, Koyali, Baruch and Surat et. Ahmedabad is the main centre for cotton.textiles, woollen and silk, textiles, paper, petrochemicals milk products, Engineering, diesel engines, oil refining etc.. åre the other important industries of this region.

4. Madurai-Coimbatore-Bangalore Indusrial regiòns : This region lies in Tamil nadu and Kaniataka states. The important centres are Bangalore, Chennai. Coimbatore, Madurai, Sivakasi, Tiruchirapalli, Salem, Mysore, Mandya, Bhadravathi etc. The region hasdiversified Industries like cotton textiles, silk, sugar, leather, chemicals, machinery, rubber, electrical equipments telephone, railway coaches, Information Technology. Bio Technology etc.

5. The Chotanagapur Plateau Industrial regions : This region is located in the states of Bihar, parts of Jharkhand and West Bengal. This region is called the Ruhr of India on account of the growth of a number of iron and steel plants and various engineering industies. Jamshedpur, Bokaro, Chittaranjan, Sindri, Durgapur, Hazaribagh etc are the important industrial town in this region.

6. The MatburaDelhi-Saharanpur-Ambala Industrial regions : This region covers Uttar Pradesh, parts of Haryana and Delhi. It includes Agra, Saharanpur, Faridabad, Ambala, Delhi, Modinagar, Ghaziabad, Ferozabad, Noida., Meerut, Math ura, Pan ipat etc. Delhi is the most important centre for the Industries of cotton textiles, glass, chemicals, automobiles, engineering, paper, soap, vanaspati, sugar and oil refineries. The region is facing the problem of environmental pollution.

Water Transportation is ideal for the movements of bulky heavy large quantities of commodities as well as perishable products. As such the oceans are considered as the natural high ways of the world. 

Some of the important ocean routes are:

1. The Northern Atlantic Sea Route: It connects North Eastern USA & North Western Europe, the two industrially developed regions of the World. The North Atlantic Sea Route is the busiest Route in the world and called “The Big Trunk Route”.

2. The Mediterreanean Sea Route: This Route passes through the heart of the old world and serves more countries.

3. The Cape of Good Hope Sea Route: The Cape of Good Hope Sea Route is the oldest route of the World, Discovered by VascoDa-Gama in 1948. Many Ships follow this route to avoid Heavy Taxation at the Suez canal.

4. The North-Pacific Sea Route: The North-Pacific sea route connects the ports are Vnconver, Seattle, Postland, Sanfrancisco, Losangles on American side and Yakohoma, Kobe, Shangai, Hanking, Manila, Singapore on the Asia side.

5. The South Atlantic Sea Route: The Eastern Coast of South America with Western Coast of South America with Western Coast of Africa and Europe. This route is not well developed.

6. Shipping Canals: The shipping canals are most important and plays a crucial role in the World transport pattern. The Major shipping canals in the world are – The Suez and the Panama Canals.

Scope of human Geography: As early societies became more successful in meeting their need within.permanent settlements.

• The rise of agriculturing activities resource extra and manufacturing activities led to more complex economic and political boundaries were created and more settlement grew into towns and cities. 
• The physical environment also changed with the influence of modem urbanize and industrialized world that we known today. 
• One of the greatest challenges faced by humans today is how to manage energy resource in a sustainable fashion without inflicting permanent damage to environment in the form of land, air, water, pollution and climatic changes.

Importance of Human Geography:

• It clarifies the societies and cultures in different ^locations. 
• The great diversity reflects through the fashion life. 
• Which realizes carrying capacity of the Earth.
• It helps us to understand circumstances affecting people and nation. 
• It is helpful to the planners, administrations, Industrialists and others.

Various types of farming are practised in different parts of the country. 

They are as follows :

1. Primitive subsistence farming 

• Migratory subsistence farming 
• Sedentary subsistence farming 

2. Intensive farming 

3. Commercial farming 

4. Mixed farming 

5. Plantation farming 

6. Dry farming 

7. Humid farming 

8. Irrigation farming

1. Primitive Subsistence Farming : The production of crops for the purpose of domestic consumption and not for commercial use is called “Primitive subsistence farming”. Farmers -used primitive methods of cultivation. This types of farming is widely practiced in hilly regions like North-easterns states, Odisha and Madhya Pradesh. Primitive subsistence farming can be classified into two types. They are –

(i) Migratory subsistances farming and (ii) Sedentary subsistence farming.

(a) Migratory subsistances farming : It is a primitive method of farming, practised by tribals in the tropical rainy forests. Under this system formers clear patches of forest by cutting and burning the bushes and trees and cultivate land. Later people migrate to another parts of the forest. Along with cultivation of crops, hunting, fishing and collection of forest resource etc are done by the people.

This type of farming is called by different local names-eg- ‘ Jhumming’ in North Eastern regions(Assam), ‘Koman’ in Odisha, ‘Ponam’ in Kerala, and ‘Podu’ in Andhra Pradesh. Yams, Peanuts, beans, bananas, upland rice, buck wheat, maize, millets and sometime vegetables are grown under this farming. This farming is practiced in Assam, Meghalay, Nagaland, Manipur, Tripura, Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh, parts of Madhya Pradesh, Odisha and Andhra Pradesh.

(b) Sedentary subsistence farming : This is an ancient form of cultivation and practiced by the people living permanetly. Here there is physical factors are favourable for cultivation, of land. The farm lands are not abandoned. They are cultivated through of the year and farmer lived near the land. Hence, this system is called “Sedentary subsistence farming”. Under this system, implements used and the mehtods Of cultivation are primitive. The surplus agricultural produce are sold to neighbouring people or sold in the market. Sedentary subsistence farming also includes the rearing of animals for milk, meat, woo! and hides.

2. Intensive farming : It is found in the areas of dense population and land holdings are small. in this type of farming land in intentively used and 2-3 harvests are obtained in year. It is known as “Intensive farming”.

It is labour and capital Intensive farming. Large amount of labour and capital is used on a small land holding, to get maximum production of crops. The available small piece of land is ised for cultivation with irrigation facilities throughout the year. In this system, farmers try to raise two or more crops, with careful tilling of the soil. Intensive agriculture is characterized by high yields per unit area and farmers try to get the maximum production from small land holdings. It is common in the fertile and irrigated parts of the country. In this type, agricultural operations are carried on by manual labour and draught animals. Rice is the main crop of Intensive farming in India.

3. Commercial farming : Agricultural crops are produced on a large scale.for the purpose of sale and not for domestic consumption, is called ‘Commercial farming’. This type of farming is generally practised in the large areas of sparse population with good transportation facilities. On large scale farms, using small amount of labour, large scale use of machinery, cash crops are growth for scale.

4. Mixed farming: Farming that includes the raising of crops and keeping of livestock is called ‘Mixed farming’. In this system farmers use the land for raising food as well as commercial crops and also used for other purposes such as livestock-raising, poultry farming, sericulture, bee-keeping etc. Farmer get more income from both side. It has been introduced in India since 1951.It is popular in the states like, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana and Tamil Nadu.

5. Plantation farming: A single cash crop is grown on large area or estates is known as ‘Plantation farming’. This is mainly a commercial type of farming. It requires large amount of labour and capital. Manual labour and skilled labour is important. Under this system crops are grown mainly for export. The important plantation crops of India are Tea, Coffee and rubber.

6. Dry farming : The farming system practised in areas which receive scanty rainfall (i.e, less that 50 cms) and irrigation facilities are very limited or absent is called ‘Dry farming’. This type of farming is practiced in Deccan plateau of south India, Western Rajasthan and other arid and semiarid regions. Famines and droughts are common in these regions. Crops are growing with low yield. Only quick maturing and drought resistant crops are cultivated. Jowar, bajra, ragi, oilseeds are the important dry farming crops.

7. Humid farming: Cultivation of crops, where the areas receiveing sufficient rainfall without the help of irrigation is known as Wet farming or Humid farming. If the rainfall is sufficient i.e. 100 to 150 cm throughout the year, double or multiple cropping is practiced in that area. Rice, sugarcane, Jute, tea, coffee, rubber etc, are grown. Sufficient rainfall helps to obtain higher yields and better quality of crops.

8. Irrigation farming: Cultivation of crops with the help of Irrigation is called ‘Irrigation farming’. This type of farming is very essential to India, because monsoon rainfall is seasonal, uncertain and insufficient. The largest area of cultivated land is under irrigation in India. This type of farming is highly concentrated in Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Bihar, Odisha, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka, and also practiced in many other states of the country.

Meaning of Human development: Human development is “development that enlarges people’s choice and improves their lives”. Standard of living & where people can live meaningful lives. Such as healthy, able to develop their talent, Participate in the activities of society etc.

Measurements of Human Development: Human development is measured with – 

1. The Human development Index. 

2. The Human poverty Index.

1. The Human development index: It is measured in three dimensions.

• Health: Good health results of higher life expectancy means the people have a greater chance of living longer and health. 
• Education: Based on the literacy rate development and status of a persons decides. 
• Decent standard of living: It is measured in terms of purchasing power (in US dollars).

2. The Human poverty index: It measures the short fall in human development in following indices.

• The probability of not surviving till the age of 40. 
• The adult illiteracy rate. 
• The number of people who are not able drink pure water. 
• The number of small children who are under weight.

The growth of population refers to the increases in the number of inhabitants of a country during specific period.

• It is estimated that the world population reached one billion for the first time in 1804. 
• Due to the impact of the industrial revolution & improvement in living standards, the rate of population growth increased two billion in 1927. 
• At present estimate of 2013 the globe is inhabited by 7121 million population. 
• During the begining of 20^th century the world population was only 2 billion and century ended with 6 billion. It continues to grow even in the 21^st century.

Stages of Population growth: 

I Three billion – July 1959 

II Four billion – April 1974 

III Five billion – July 1987 

IV Six billion – 12^th October 1999 

V Seven billion – 12^th March 2012.

The correct answer is Granite stone.

• In 1835, a short railway line intended to carry granite stone was laid at Chintadripet on an experimental basis.
• It later became known as the Red Hill Railroad line.
• The Madras Railway was formed in 1845.
• In 1852, the work for laying the first track by Madras Guaranteed Railway Company between Madras and Arcot was started
• Its first track from Royapuram in Chennai to Arcot was opened in 1856.
• The first railway station in Madras city was opened at Royapuram in 1853.
• It was the first to be constructed railway station in South India.

• Evolution of Indian railway:
  • The first railway on the Indian sub-continent ran over a stretch of 21 miles from Bombay to Thane.
  • The idea of a railway to connect Bombay with Thane, Kalyan, and with the Thal and Bhore Ghats inclines first occurred to Mr. George Clark, the Chief Engineer of the Bombay Government, during a visit to Bhandup in 1843.
  • The formal inauguration ceremony was performed on 16th April 1853.
  • The first train had 14 railway carriages and carried about 400 guests.
  •  It was operated by three locomotives, named Sahib, Sultan, and Sindh

When an iron nail is dipped in copper sulphate solution, it becomes brownish in colour because iron has replaced copper from its solution.
Thus the amount of copper sulphate decreases and its colour fades.
Fe_(s) + CuSO_4(aq) → FeSO_4(aq) + Cu_(s)
This is a displacement reaction.

Causes of water pollution: 

Water pollution is caused by natural and human sources.

• Natural sources of water pollution are due to erosion, landslides, gases, soil, minerals. 
• Human excreta, waste created by animals and other living organisms and rotting vegetation are also some causes. More than natural sources, water pollution is largely caused by human activities. 
• Humans pollute water through industrial, agricultural and cultural activities. Among these, industry is the worst culprit. 
• Industries produce a variety of waste products including industrial wastes, polluted water wastes, poisonous gases, chemical residuals, numerous heavy metals, dust, smoke etc.,
• Most of the industrial wastes are disposed off by running water. Consequently poisonous elements reach the lakes, river and other water bodies, which destroy them. 
• Reservoirs -They in turn destroy the bio-systems of the water. Major water polluting industries are leather, pulp and paper, textiles and chemicals. 
• Fertilizers, pesticides and insecticides, farm wastes and mineral particles from agricultural lands are washed down and end up in rivers, lakes and tanks. 
• The chemicals also infiltrate into the soil to reach the ground water.
• Addition of fertilizer increases the nitrate content of surface waters. 
• Religious and cultural activities like pilgrimages, fairs, tourism, immersi On of idols after pujas etc., also cause water pollution, 
• Urban activities such as improper sewage disposal also cause water pollution. 
• Effects of water pollution: Water pollutants adversely affect the health of humans, animals and aquatic life. 
• Water pollution is a source of various water borne diseases like diarrhoea, intestinal worms, hepatitis etc. 
• World health organization shows that about one fourth of the communicable diseases in India are disease water borne.

Reuse of materials is better than recycling of materials because:

1. reuse of material does not use any energy.

2. it reduces the stress on environment,

3. Things are maximally utilised, as they are used again and again instead of being throughing away.

Demographic cycle is the process of population transformation from the countries of high birth rate and high death rates to low birth rate & low death rate countries.

Stages of Demographic cycle: 

1. First stage: High birth rate and high death is found when the country is economically most backward, so the population remains stationary. India was in the stage till 1920.

2. Second stage (Early expanding): It begins with the declining of death rate while the birth rate remains unchanged. These changes due to the advancement of science & technology, basic healthcare and education etc. At present many developing countries of Asia & Africa are in this stage.

3. Third stage (Late expanding): Death rate declines and birth rate begins to fall due to access of contraceptives, urbanization, an increase in the status and women education etc India appears to be this stage.

4. Fourth stage (Low stationary): It is characterized with low birth rate and low death rate. Growth is stationary due to changing life style, high obesity and many diseases are caused in this stage. Japan, Sweden, Belgium Denmark & Switzerland are in this stage.

5. Fifth stage(DecIining): Population begins to decline or birth rate is lower than deathrate. East European countries like Germany and Hungary and North European countries like Sweden, Norway are now in this stage.

Demographic cycle is the process of population transformation from the countries of high birth rate and high death rates to low birth rate & low death rate countries.

Stages of Demographic cycle:

• First stage: High birth rate and high death is found when the country is economically most backward, so the population remains stationary. India was in the stage till 1920. 
• Second stage (Early expanding): It begins with the declining of death rate while the birth rate ramins unchanged. These changes due to the advancement of science & technology, basic health care and education etc. At present many developing countries of Asia & Africa are in this stage. 
• Third stage (Late expanding): Death rate declines and birth rate begins to fall due to access of contraceptives, urbanization, an increase in the status and women education etc India appears to be this stage. 
• Fourth stage (Low stationary): It is characterized with low birth rate and low death rate. Growth is stationary due to changing life style, high obesity and many diseases are caused in this stage. Japan. Sweden, Belgium Denmark & Switzerland are in this stage. 
• Fifth stage( Declining): Population begins to decline or birth rate is lower than death rate. East European countries like Germany and Hungary and North European countries like Sweden. Norway are now in this stage.