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State any features of Culture: 

1. Culture is learnt 

2. Culture is social 

3. Culture is shared 

4. Culture is Pransmissive

The term society is the most fundamental Concept in sociology. Society is established as a separate science to study human society scientifically. Human life and society are two faces of the same coin. Man cannot live alone. He lives everywhere in groups in society. Society has became an essential condition for all round development of personality. Hence “Aristotle” recognized that “Man is a social animal” man has created his own society because of his intellectual capacity. Sociology only deals with human society.

In simple term, society is very loosely used in their daily life, examples – the agricultural society, women’s society, rural society, the weaver’s society, Cooperative Society, etc, But in sociology the term society has a specific meaning. The term Society is derived from Latin word ‘ Socius’ which means “companionship or friendship’ According to Maclver and page: “Society is “the web of social relationships”.

The Smallest Unit of Culture is Called Cultural Element.

(d) None of these. 

Formal Relation is not the Characteristics of Rural Community.

M.N Srinivas.

The characteristics of social change are: 

Social change is Universal and Continuous: The change is true for all societies. Whether it is east or west, urban or Rural societies, for example in rural society change may be slow in urban society change may be rapid. Today in India we find rapid change from north to south. The extent of change may be different but every part of society changes.

Social Change is Continuous and Temporal: Social change never stops. It continues and is continuous. It is also called a process. Social change happens in time period and it is called as temporal. We see in society that many innovations, alterations, modifications take place from time to time regularly. Time is the best yard stick to measure change. We observe two different phenomena in two different time period. 

Social change is Inevitable: Naturally change is inevitable because it is natural. Natural phenomena are inevitable to society. Hence, social changes are inevitable. Social change does not occur according to the interest of man. Social change does not go according to our interest only. It is changing naturally. Man changes its direction and speed.

Inclusive Organisation : Society is the most inclusive organisation. As we have seen earlier, the concept Society may be analysed from both structural and functional view points. In its wider sense, it is used to refer to human race as a whole. In its narrower sence, it is applied to a tribe consisting of only few hundred people or families. The concept includes the total social heritage of folkways, mores and institutions; of habits, sentiments and ideals; also the groups in reciprocal relationships interacting upon one another.

Tonnies has given the Concept of 'Gemeischaft & Gesellchaft'.

According to Durkheim “Education as the socialization of the Younger generation and it is a continuous efforts to impose on the child ways of seeing feeling and acting which he could not have arrived at spontaneously.

The types of Education: Education is a process, as a process, education is a continuous activity that goes on all through one’s life-from birth to death. This process of humanizing man, developing his personality, transmitting culture from one generation to other, a Spontaneous unfolding of human potentialities, is carried on in all social institutions like religion, peer grouped, neighborhood, family and community etc. on the other hand, what takes place in Schools and colleges, the methodical socialization, designed instruction and interaction between socialize and the socializing agent for the education and the educator is what is called formal education. A brief description of types of education as follows:

1. Informal education: It simply denotes the in deliberate, spontaneous, life long process of learning continuously and universally emanating from all most all social institutions. The process of informal training begins for everyone of us in the family.

2. Family is the first school and the mother is the first teacher is the dictum that sufficiently explains the role of informal education in molding human nature and personality. “Peer Groups” means those groups made up of the age mates or contemporaries of the child, his associates in playground, neighborhood etc.,

Formal education: On the other hand is designed, consciously and deliberately given with a planned pursuit what takes place within the four walls of the school, strictly officially in accordance with the curriculum is format instruction.

3. Time table, syllabi, specialized and compartmentalized knowledge, authority pattern, official structure, by laws, disciplines, hierarchy of teachers and class grades, examination system all reflects the formal design of the school and colleges. As it is with the modern social structure characterized by formal institutions and relations in performing economic, industrial, legal and political regulative functions.

Dubey is the author of the book 'Indian Village'.

The primary functions are; 

1. Member replacement and physical maintenance: In order to survive, every society must replace members who die and keep the survivors alive. The regulations of reproduction is centered in the family as are cooking and eating and care of the sick. Once children are bom, they will be nurtured and protected within the family. It is the family that feeds, clothes and shelters them.

2. Regulation of sexual behavior:The family regulates sexual behavior. Each member’s sexual behavior is influenced to some extent by what is learnt in the family setting. The sexual attitudes and patterns of behavior in the family reflects societal norms and regulate the sexual behavior, 

3. Socialization of children: The family carries out the responsibility of socializing each child. Children are taught largely by their families to conform to socially approved patterns of behavior. The family as an act of instrument of transmission of culture, it serves the individual as an instrument of socialization.

4. Status transmission: Individual social identity is initially fixed by family membership being bom to parents of a given status. Children take on the socio-economic class standing of their parents and the culture of the class into which they are born, including its value, behavior patterns, in addition to the internalizing family attitudes and beliefs. Children are treated and defined by others as extensions of the social identity of their parents.

5. Emotional support: The family as a primary group is an important source of affecting entertainment love and interaction, caring. It is seemingly the nature of human begins to establish social interdependency, not only to meet physical needs, but also to gratify emotional and psychological needs also.

6. Fulfillment of needs: Family is the most important primary institution that gives moral and emotional support for the members. Providing safety, security, love and affection. Warmth and comfort. It provides defense against Isolation. Family as an health agency provides most of the help for the young, the old and the sick. It is by large responsibility for the Health of its members.

India has no state religion, it is a secular state. It is the land where almost all the major religions of the world are practiced by their respective followers. Nevertheless the religious diversity has been a major source of disunity and disharmony in the country. This is because in India religious affiliation appears to be overemphasized and many a time people seem to forget the national unity and express their loyalty more towards their own religion.

The glaring example of such feeling is the partition of our country due to the development of the two nation theory. But the matter has not ended there. The communal feeling among different religious groups still persists. Among the major religions in India are: Hinduism, Islam Christianity, Sikhism, Buddhism and Jainism. Zoroastrianism, Judaism and Bahaism are the religions with lesser following.

Hinduism is the religion of the majority in India. It comprises of Indo-Aryan, Dravidian and Pre-Dravidian religious elements. The follower of Hinduism believe in the doctrine of ‘Karma’, ‘Dharma’, rebirth, immortality of soul, renunciation and salvation. Hinduism allows a number of possible conceptions of God. It also prescribes various alternative paths of attaining God. The Sakta, the Saiva, the Satnami, the Lingayat, the Kabirpanthi, the Brahmo Samaj, the Arya Samaj etc. are different sects of Hinduism.

According to 1991 census 697.4 million people (82.6%) in India practise Hinduism and provide a solid base for national unity through common beliefs, festivals, customs and traditions. Islam originated in Arabia as a monolithic religion. It came to India towards the last quarter of the 12th century A.D., with the Muslim invasions. The Muslim rulers in India patronized it. They established long dynasties over large chunks of the country and encouraged conversions from Hinduism and Buddhism. As a result the number of Muslims gradually increased in India.

Islam does not believe in idol worship. It professes the fatalistic acceptance of Allah’s will and considers prophet Mohammed as the greatest prophet. The ‘Quran’, sacred book of Islam, ordains five primary duties of a true and devout Muslim, such as, belief in God (Allah), prayers five times a day, the giving of alms, a month’s fast every year, and a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in the life time of a Muslim.

A large number of Muslims in India are converts. “In the conversion of large masses of the Indians to Islam the use of force was an exception rather than a rule. Brahmnical Hinduism offered a much more solid resistance to the spread of Islam. For the lower castes, acceptance of Islam meant an escape from the degraded status they had in the Hindu society to at least a theoretical equality with the ruling community.”

But these large scale conversions to Islam in reality did not actually bring about an acceptance of their higher status either by the caste Hindus, to whom every Muslim was an untouchable or by the Ashraf’s, the uppermost section of the Muslims, who maintained a social distance from the lower caste converts in matters of marriage and social intercourse.

Socialization is an important matter for society. It doesn’t occur accidently. But should be controlled through cultural directions. Social nature is very much influenced by the culture of an individual. It is a known fact that man is bom as a biological animal. He becomes social animal only through the process of socialization. Culture is the content that is length in the process of socialization. Though culture varies from society to society, every society has its own distinct culture. Therefore society, culture and socialization are closely related to each other, Socialization that turns the child in to a useful members of society according to cultural directions.

The role of culture in socialization can be explained in the followings:

• Culture provides the base to the socialization process was making the individual a normal social being.
• Culture provides the guidance to the individual to control his various activities. Which he learns through the process of socialization. 
• Culture assists socialization in teaching the culture qualities like morality, good behaviors, positive attitude, ideals and values. 
• Culture through the process of socialization helps the individual to decide his career. 
• Cultures through the socialization also provide guidance to the individual to maintain their behavior patterns according to social situation. 
• Culture through the socialization process helps an individual to become an important contributor to society. 
• Culture through the process of socialization helps to work for social welfare and develop a positive attitude towards all.

K.M. Kapadia is the author of the book "Marriage & Family in India".

The two characteristics of education are: 

1. Preservative function 

2. Al locative function 

3. Reformative function

(d) All of these

(d) All these

According to Durkheim “Education as the socialization of the younger generation and it is a continuous efforts to impose on the child ways of seeing feeling and acting which he could not have arrived at spontaneously. The types of Education Education is a process, as a process, education is a continuous activity that goes on all through one’s life-from birth to death.

This process of humanizing man, developing his personality, transmitting culture from one generation to other, a Spontaneous unfolding of human potentialities, is carried on in all social institutions like religion, peer grouped, neighborhood, family and community etc. on the other hand, what takes place in schools and colleges, the methodical socialization, designed instruction and interaction between socialize and the socializing agent for the education and the educator is what is called formal education. A brief description of types of education as follows:

1. Informal education: It simply denotes the in deliberate, spontaneous, life long process of learning continuously and universally emanating from all most all social institutions. The process of informal training begins for every one of us in the family. 

Family is the first school and the mother is the first teacher is the dictum that sufficiently explains the role of informal education in molding human nature and personality. “Peer Groups” means those groups made up of the age mates or contemporaries of the child, his associates in playground, neighborhood etc.,

2. Formal education: On the other hand is designed, consciously and deliberately given with a planned pursuit what takes place within the four walls of the school, strictly officially in accordance with the curriculum is format instruction. Time table, syllabi, specialized and compartmentalized knowledge, authority pattern, official structure, by laws, disciplines, hierarchy of teachers and class grades, examination system all reflects the formal design of the school and colleges. As it is with the modem social structure characterized by formal institutions and relations in performing economic, industrial, legal and political regulative functions.

The two characteristics of social change are 

1. Social change is universal 

2. Complex phenomenon 

3. Social change is change in community 

4. Social change is continuous and temporal

Socialization is an important matter for society. It doesn’t occur accidently. But should be controlled through cultural directions.Social nature is very much influenced by the culture of an individual. It is a known fact that man is bom as a biological animal. He becomes social animal only through the process of socialization. Culture is the content that is length in the process of socialization. Though culture varies from society to society, every society has its own distinct culture. Therefore society, culture and socialization are closely related to each other, Socialization that turns the child in to a useful members of society according to cultural directions.

The role of culture in socialization can be explained in the followings: 

• Culture provides the base to the socialization process was making the individual a normal social being. 
• Culture provides the guidance to the individual to control his various activities. Which he learns through the process of socialization. 
• Culture assists socialization in teaching the culture qualities like morality, good behaviors, positive attitude, ideals and values. 
• Culture through the process of socialization helps the individual to decide his career. 
• Cultures through the socialization also provide guidance to the individual to maintain their behavior patterns according to social situation. 
• Culture through the socialization process helps an individual to become an important contributor to society. 
• Culture through the process of socialization helps to work for social welfare and develop a positive attitude towards all.

Socialization is an important matter for society. It doesn’t occur accidently. But should be controlled through cultural directions. Social nature is very much influenced by the culture of an individual, it is a known fact that man is bom as a biological animal. He becomes social animal only through the process of socialization. Culture is the content that is length in the process of socialization. Though culture varies from society, every society has its own distinct culture. 

The role of culture in socialization can be explained in the followings:

• Culture provides the base to the socialization process is making the individual a normal social being.
• Culture provides the guidance to the individual to control his various activities. 
• Which he learns through the process of socialization. 
• Culture assists socialization in teaching the culture qualities like morality, good behaviors, positive attitude, ideals and values. 
• Culture through the process of socialization helps the individual to decide his career. 
• Culture through the socialization also provide guidance to the individual to maintain their behavior patterns according to social situation. 
• Culture through the socialization process helps an individual to become an important contributor to society. 
• Culture through the process of socialization helps to work for social welfare and develop a positive attitude towards all.

Factories and vehicles excrete sulphuric, Nitrogen oxides. These remain the environment for longtime. By chemical and photo chemical reactions, sulphuric acid and nitric acid are formed and combines with water vapors in the environment. This is called ‘Acid Rain’.

The Mass Media: The print and audio-visual means of communication have a great role to play in child’s socialization. Newspaper, magazine, text books, television etc., play a lucid role in transmitting culture from one generation to the other. The state may also use them deliberately to educate the mass. They may be used purposively to change the value system.

In tradition and simple societies the agencies of socialization are limited and harmonious in influencing the personality of the individual. In complex societies, however, they are many and diverse agencies, at time working at cross purposes.

Predominance of Primary relations is not a Characteristics of Urban Community.

Untouchability is not an economic Problem among Scheduled Caste.

August Comte.

a. Development of Personality : Man is fundamentally a social being. He has to adjust to the changing conditions of the society. Sociology gives a scientific and a comprehensive knowledge of human society. The scientific knowledge about the structure of society, its development, change, problems, individual rights and obligations, etc., makes not only individual an enlighten member of the society, but also leads to the development of his personality in a proper manner.

b. Change in attitudes: Sociology is useful in developing rational attitude towards society, religion, customs, mores, institutions, values, ideologies, etc. Sociology plays an important role in changing the attitudes towards others. The study of Sociology helps us to overcome prejudices about others people, class, caste, religious hatredness, misconceptions ambitions. Totally Sociology helps us to develop a critical approach towards the ‘ Social World’, So that, we can have better relations with the people of not only our society but also with the people of other societies.

c. Solutions of Social Problems: Every society is facing its own problems. For example, India is facing so many problems like poverty, unemployment, terrorism, corruption, untouchability, prostitution, gambling, over population, beggary, etc. The deep study of these problems is necessary to solve them. Sociology helps us to make an objective study of social problems. It also gives valuable suggestions to solve.

d. Social Planning and Policy Making: Sociology is playing a key role in social planning and policy making. Sociological knowledge is very much useful and the service and suggestions of expert sociologists are sought even in the formulations of Government Policies, Social Legislations regarding family, population control, child labour, environment pollution, beggary, etc.

e. To promote welfare of the backward and weaker section of the society: In India, Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and other weaker sections are exploited in social, economic, and political fields for centuries. To promote welfare programmes for these groups sociological knowledge is necessary.

f. Sociology as a Attractive Teaching Subject: Sociology is gaining importance as a popular teaching subject. Careers apart from teaching are now possible in Sociology. Sociology is introduced as one of the subj ect to be studied in many colleges and Universities. Sociology is also included in the subjects to be offered by candidates taking completive examinations like IAS, IPS, IFS, KAS and KES, etc. There are many employment opportunities in many fields like Education, Social Welfare, Family Welfare, Public Administration, Women and Child Welfare Development, etc. 

g. Role of Sociology in developing countries: Social factors are also responsible for the economic backwardness particularly in under developed countries. Economists have now realized the importance of sociological information and knowledge in analyzing the economic life of their countries. So, it has been said that “Economist should be Sociologist also”. 

h. Sociological knowledge about modern situations and developments: Sociology always gives information about the recent changes and developments that takes place in and around us. So that we can act according to the changes. The knowledge about these things makes us conscious about our responsibilities towards society. 

Food habits, Human activities.

Informal of Social Control are Sacraments.

Structured interview and Unstructured interview.

According to A. W. Green “conflict is the deliberate attempt to oppose, resist or coerce the will of another or others”.

Legislation, courts, police Jail, armed force, Bureaucracy etc.

Interview The very term implies “Interviewing is an interactional process, it is a mutual view of each other”.

Structured Interview : has predetermined questions and standard techniques. The number of questions is also fixed. In this method of interview, number and nature of questions, order of asking them, wording of questions, recording system and everything in the interview process is standardized.

Merits of structured Interview: 

• It provides safe basis for the & generalization 
• In this method, interview’s bias can be restricted 
• It is more methodical and easy to administer

Demerits. 

• The rigid and mechanical process, sometimes defeat the purpose of interview. It lacks the flexible nature and personal touch in interview 
• In this method, there is a possibility that substances of interview obtain less importance than formal process and set up.

Unstructured (Oral) Interview: It is not rigid type of interview. In this method, there is flexibility in the entire process of interview. The interview has greater freedom to choose the form depending on situations. The flexibility nature of interview allows the interview to ask number, sequence, and method of questions according to requirements of situations.

Merits of Unstructured Interview 

• The informal nature of interview creates a congenial atmosphere for effective communication.
• In a highly diverse society of India, the formal set up interview imposes serve limitations on interview. Unstructured interview is the only remedy for this problem

Demerits of Unstructured Interview 

• The informal nature of interview provides respondents to answer differently, this is difficult in analysis of data 
• To administer this type of interview, well trained and skilled persons are required 
• The more number of personal bias and prejudices may be the part of this method.

Merits of Interview method 

• It is possible to obtain highly reliable information and in depth knowledge 
• It is possible to obtain information about the past and also about future plans in a detailed manner. 
• There is a high rate of response 
• Interview method can be used with all types of persons.

Demerits of Interview method 

• There is a possibility of misleading information being given by the interview 
• There can be defects due to the interview who may not be the best person to give information 
• There can be defects due to the bias or prejudice of the interview himself. Interview is a difficult skill and needs training 
• It is a costly and time-consuming method.

They are four types of environment they are: 

1. Physical environment 

2. Biological environment 

3. Social environment 

4. The science of ecology

The two characteristics of social change are 

1. Social change is universal .

2. Complex phenomenon 

3. Social change is change in community 

4. Social change is continuous and temporal.

Social competition, economic competition etc. 

According to Durkheim “Education as the socialization of the younger generation and it is a continuous efforts to impose on the child ways of seeing feeling and acting which he could not have arrived at spontaneously 

According to Durkheim “Education as the socialization of the younger generation and it is a continuous efforts to impose on the child ways of seeing feeling and acting which he could not have arrived at spontaneously

Family is the first school and the mother is the first teacher is the dictum that sufficiently explains the role of informal education.

According to the oxford English dictionary development means a gradual unfolding a fallen working out of details of anything it is in this sense that we often speak of the development of a child or of a disease, but the case of social development it is difficult to speak in the same way.

The personality of the child, his role and that of the mother are not probably clearly distinguished. Hence the infant and mother are merged Sigmund Freud called this stage as the stage of a primary identification.

The positive or scientific stage is the third stage. This is what the stage that everything based on intellectual way of thinking, looking the world. Thought this theory Comte tried to established the facts that man became more and more relational and scientific in his approach.

Man is a social human being. Also man is a cultural being, the term society itself express that, it is a cultural phenomenon. Without culture it is difficult to understand social life.

Mainly three process can be observed which bring change: 

• Discovery: discovery is the perception which unfold a reality that already exists, for egg. Vasco- D-Gama discovered way to India by sea. 
• Invention: invention is use of existing knowledge to produce something that did not exist before 
• Diffusion: diffusion is the spread of cultural elements from one culture to another. For egg. Western culture is spreading in east. Buddhism and its culture spread in China and Sri Lanka.

Sociology is the youngest among the Social Sciences. The term “Sociology” is derived from Latin word “Socius” means ‘Companion’ or ‘Associate’ and Greek word “LOGOS” means ‘Science’ or ‘Study of Society’. Thus the etymological meaning of the term Sociology is “Study of Society”.

The nature and characteristics of sociology can be summarised in the following way :

1. Sociology is an independent science: Sociology is not treated and studied as a branch of any other science like philosophy or political philosophy. As an independent science, it has its own field of study, boundary and method of approach.

2. Sociology is a Social Science and not a physical Science: Sociology belongs to the Social Science and not to Physical Science. As a social science, it concentrates its attention on man, his Social behavior, Social Activities, and Social life. It is intimately related to other social Sciences like Anthropology, Political Science, Economics, Psychology, etc.

3. Sociology is a categorical and not a Normative Discipline: Sociology Studies things “as it is” and not “as they ought to be”. As a Science, Sociology is necessarily silent about the questions of value. It does not make any kind of value-judgements. Its approaches neither moral nor immoral but amoral. It is ethically neutral. It cannot decide the directions in which Sociology ought to go.

4. Sociology is a pure science and not an Applied science: Sociology is a pure Science because the immediate aim of Sociology is the acquisition of knowledge. On the contrary an applied science is interested in the application or utilization of that knowledge. Sociologists never determine questions of public policy and do not recommend legislators what laws should be passed or repealed. But the knowledge acquired by a Sociologist is of great help to the administrator, legislators, diplomats, teachers, social workers, and citizens.

5. Sociology is relatively an abstract science and not a concrete science: Sociology does not confine itself to the study of particular or concrete instances of human events. But it studies the abstract forms of human events and their patterns. For example, it does not limit itself to the study of any particular war or revolution. On the contrary, it deals with them in a general or abstract manner, as social phenomena, i.e., as types of Social conflict. In a similar manner, it makes such generalized Studies of marriage, religion, family, group, etc.

6. Sociology is a Generalising and not a particularising science: Sociology tries to make generalizations on the basis of the study of some selected events. For example, a sociologist make generalizations on the following:

• Joint families are more stable than the nuclear families. 
• Social changes tale place with greater rapidity in urban communities than in tribal or rural communities.

7. Sociology is a General Social science and not a Special Social Science: The area of inquiry of Sociology is general and not specialized. It is concerned with human activities whether they are political, economic, religious, social, etc., in a general way. 

8. Sociology is both an Empirical and a Rational Science: Sociology is an empirical science because, it emphasises the facts that result from observation and experimentation, it rests on trial, or experiment or experience. It is a rational Science because it stresses that role of reasoning and logical inferences. An empiricist collects facts where as a rationalist co-ordinates and arranges them. All modern science including Sociology avail themselves of both empirical and rational resources.

The nature and characteristics of sociology can be summarised in the following way :

Sociology is an Independent Science: Sociology is not treated and studied as a branch of any other Science like philosophy or political philosophy. As an independent science it has its own subject matter, theories and method of approach.

Sociology is a Social Science not a physical Science: Sociology belongs to the Social Science and not to the physical science. As a Social Science it concentrates its attention on man, his Social behaviour, Social activities and Social life. It is intimately related to other social Sciences like anthropology, Political Science, economics, and Psychology, etc.

Sociology is a categorical not a Normative Discipline: Sociology Studies things “as it is” and “not as they ought to be”. As a Science, Sociology is necessarily silent about the questions of value. It does not make any kind of value-judgements. Its approaches neither moral nor immoral but amoral. It is ethically neutral. It cannot decide the directions in which Sociology ought to go. Sociology is a pure Science not an Applied science: Sociology is a pure science, because the immediate aim of Sociology is the acquisition of knowledge.

On the contrary an applied science is interested in the application or utilization of that knowledge. Sociologists never determine questions of public policy and do not recommend legislators what laws should be passed or repealed. But the knowledge acquired by a Sociologist is of great help to the administrator, legislators, diplomats, teachers, Social workers, & citizens, Sociology is relatively an abstract science and not a concrete science Sociology does not confine itself to the study of particular or concrete instances of human events.

But it. studies the abstract forms of human events and their patterns. For example, it does not limit ‘ itself to the Study of any particular war or revolution. On the contrary it deals with them in a I general or abstract manner, as Social phenomena, i.e., as types of Social conflict. In a similar manner, it makes such generalized Studies of marriage, religion, family, group, etc.

Sociology is a Generalising and not a particularising science: Sociology tries to make generalisations on the basis of the study of some selected events. For example, a Sociologist make generalizations on the following:

1. Joint families are more stable than the nuclear families. 

2. Social changes tale place with greater rapidity in urban communities than in tribal or rural communities.

Sociology is a General Social Science and not a special Social Science: The area of enquiry of Sociology is general and not specialized. It is concerned with human activities whether they are political, economic, religious, social, etc., in a general way.

Finally Sociology is both an Empirical and a Rational Science: Sociology is an empirical science because it emphasises the facts that result from observation and experimentation, it rests on trial, or experiment or experience. It is a rational Science because it stresses the role of reasoning and logical inferences. An empiricist collects facts where as a rationalist co-ordinates and arranges them. All modem science including Sociology avail themselves of both empirical and rational resources.

The nature and characteristics of sociology can be summarised in the following way :

Sociology is an Independent Science: Sociology is not treated and studied as a branch of any other Science like philosophy or political philosophy. As an independent science it has its own subject matter, theories and method of approach.

Sociology is a Social Science not a physical Science: Sociology belongs to the Social Science and not to the physical science. As a Social Science it concentrates its attention on man, his Social behaviour, Social activities and Social life. It is intimately related to other social Sciences like anthropology, Political Science, economics, and Psychology, etc.

Sociology is a categorical not a Normative Discipline: Sociology Studies things “as it is” and “not as they ought to be”. As a Science, Sociology is necessarily silent about the questions of value. It does not make any kind of value-judgements. Its approaches neither moral nor immoral but amoral. It is ethically neutral. It cannot decide the directions in which Sociology ought to go. Sociology is a pure Science not an Applied science: Sociology is a pure science, because the immediate aim of Sociology is the acquisition of knowledge.

On the contrary an applied science is interested in the application or utilization of that knowledge. Sociologists never determine questions of public policy and do not recommend legislators what laws should be passed or repealed. But the knowledge acquired by a Sociologist is of great help to the administrator, legislators, diplomats, teachers, Social workers, & citizens, Sociology is relatively an abstract science and not a concrete science Sociology does not confine itself to the study of particular or concrete instances of human events.

But it. studies the abstract forms of human events and their patterns. For example, it does not limit ‘ itself to the Study of any particular war or revolution. On the contrary it deals with them in a I general or abstract manner, as Social phenomena, i.e., as types of Social conflict. In a similar manner, it makes such generalized Studies of marriage, religion, family, group, etc.

Sociology is a Generalising and not a particularising science: Sociology tries to make generalisations on the basis of the study of some selected events. For example, a Sociologist make generalizations on the following: 

1. Joint families are more stable than the nuclear families. 

2. Social changes tale place with greater rapidity in urban communities than in tribal or rural communities.

Sociology is a General Social Science and not a special Social Science: The area of enquiry of Sociology is general and not specialized. It is concerned with human activities whether they are political, economic, religious, social, etc., in a general way.

Finally Sociology is both an Empirical and a Rational Science: Sociology is an empirical science because it emphasises the facts that result from observation and experimentation, it rests on trial, or experiment or experience. It is a rational Science because it stresses the role of reasoning and logical inferences. An empiricist collects facts where as a rationalist co-ordinates and arranges them. All modem science including Sociology avail themselves of both empirical and rational resources. 

August Comte: Being one of the pioneers of Sociology, August Comte is the first who introduced the term “Sociology”. Therefore the credit of calling “Father of Sociology” goes to him. August Comte was the first to introduce a new science called “Sociology” and a brief note of his contribution confirms a new era for the study of Sociology. He used the word “Sociology” for the first time in his famous work “Positive Philosophy” during 1839. He called Sociology as the scientific study of society. He wanted that this science of society – should explain the laws of the social world like natural sciences explain the laws of the physical world.

August Comte insisted that the study of society needs scientific method with objectivity. He believed that theoretical science of society and a systematic investigation of behaviour were needed to improve society.

August Comte divided Sociology into two parts. They are : (1) Social statics and (2) social dynamics. “Social statics” deals with major institutions such as family, economy, religion, etc. “Social Dynamics” deals with the issue of social change and social progress. Now these words are called in the name of social structure and social change respectively.

According to August Comte, there is a direct relation between intellectuality and social progress. Related to this he explains law of three stages. They are: 

1. The Theological stage: During this stage all human thoughts were guided by religious – ideas and faith in the supernatural powers. It emphasizes the belief that everything is attributed to a particular God.

2. The metaphysical stage: During this stage, all human thought were guided by “abstract forces” like nature. It is almost like philosophical inquiry into the nature. 

3. The positive or scientific stage: This is what the stage that everything based on intellectual way of thinking, looking the world. Through this theory Comte tried to establish the fact that man became more and more rational and scientific in his approach. Comte introduced a theory of classification of sciences. Through this theory he emphasized that there is interrelation and interdependence of social sciences.

August Comte as a supporter of the moral order in the society says that sociologists have taken responsibility of “priesthood of humanity” and should solve the problems of the society. August Comte’s contribution to sociological literature are “Positive Philosophy” and “Positive Polity”.

1. There is a danger of losing objectivity because of emotional attachments and other involvement or Ego-satisfaction. 

2. Some phenomena cannot be observed through participation instant, an observer cannot become a criminal.

The sources of pollution are:

1. Airpollution 

2. Water pollution 

3. Solid pollution.

The term evolution is emerged from the Latin word ‘Evolvere’ which means to unfold or to ‘develop’. 

E.A. Bogardus Identified the following elements by community. Geographical area or locality and community sentiments are considered as the essential elements of community. They are also considered as characteristics of community.

(a) Locality or geographical area: A community is a territorial group. It always occupies some geographic area. Locality is the physical basis of a community, locality Means- “a group of people of people became a community only when it starts to reside permanently in a definite locality.

In contract with society a community is more or less locally limited. Living together facilitates people to develop social contacts, gives fulfill their common interests. In community physical conditions may influence peoples social life, family, religion, belief, employment etc.

(b) Community sentiment: Community sentiment: “a feeli9ng of belongingness towards, or “a kind of conscious identification with the local group.” Community sentiment makes . the people share their joys and sorrows and brings social integrity in them. Common interests and similar life styles awaken community sentiments in people.

Other Characteristics of community:

1. Stability or relative Permanence: A community is not temporary group like a crowd or a mob. It includes a permanent life in a definite territory. As a along as there is life on the earth, people continue to reside permanently all through their life in the communities. 

2. Naturalness: Communities are normally established in a natural way. They are not deliberately created. They are not made by planned efforts. The members of a community are the individual who are bom in a community. As people live over a period of time in a particular territory naturally the community feeling develops.

3. Size of the community: Community has no certain size. A community may be big or small. A village is small community where as a city is a big one. A city and a village may be included in a wider community called the district. Hence there are communities within communities. Nation as a big community, may include communities like, Village, towns cities etc

C. H. Cooley introduced the term primary groups.