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According to St. Augustine, “History is the story of the struggle between God and Satan, which would ultimately end in the victory of God (good) over Satan (evil). According to Karl Marx, “History is a story of the struggle between the haves and have nots”. 

According to Herodotus, “History is a record of great heroes and unique events to be remembered by the future generations”. St. Augustine says that “History is the story of the struggle between God and Satan, which would ultimately end in the victory of God (good) over Satan (evil)”. According to the German Philosopher and Economist Karl Marx, “History is a story of the struggle between the have’s and have not’s”.

According to J.B. Bury, “History ‘ is a science; no less and no more”. Thomas Carlyle says “Great personalities are no more, but, history and autobiography of such personalities are still there”. According to Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, “Those who forget history cannot create history”. In general, history is understood as a record of past events.

John Wycliffe was an early leader of the Reformation. He belonged to England.

It is said that but for the Romans, the Greek culture would not have spread to the Western World. Directly or indirectly, Romans acted as the agents. Rome has made its own distinct contributions such as the formation of Republics and Governments. Laws, Legal procedures and Systems, Principles of Taxation, Citizenship Rights, Setting up of Hospitals and Sanitation Systems and construction of Public Buildings and Baths.

The greatest gift of the Romans was the ‘Pax Romana’ or the Roman Peace. The Roman Empire covered a vast stretch of territory touching three continents, namely Europe, Africa and Asia. By the might of its army, Rome gave peace to the entire Mediterranean World. Prior to that, it was a place of constant wars between the petty Rulers. But for the peaceful atmosphere, the growth of the Roman Civilization would not have been possible.

It was Romans who gave the first practical demonstration of the idea of ‘World State’. They showed the world not only how to build an Empire, but also how to Govern it efficiently. They introduced a uniform system of Administration and common laws throughout the Empire.

The most outstanding intellectual contribution of the Romans was the formation of a body of laws. These laws have made a profound impact on almost all the civilized nations of the World today. Earlier, it was the Priests who were interpreting the laws for the common people.

The first written code came in the form of ‘Twelve Tables’ in 150 B.C. It established ‘Equality before Law’. It was of two parts: Jus Civili applied to the Roman citizens and Jus Gentium applicable to all living on Roman lands that were not given citizenship. Justinian codified them completely.

Romans were the inventors of concrete. They introduced Arches and Cupolas (Domes) in their Architecture and built many fine Public Buildings, Amphitheatres and Temples. The Coliseum built by Vespasian, and the Pantheon are fine examples for that. Romans built miles and miles of very good, well paved highways like Via Appia, Via Latina and Via Valeria. 

The roads were for the fast movement of their armies across the Empire and for trade with distant parts. Their system of interlinking roads connecting Rome with all the major parts of their Empire and the importance of Rome gave rise to the saying that “All roads lead to Rome”.

Roman Contributions in science were very limited. Most of the conclusions reached by Roman scientists were philosophical, and not the result of careful experimentation. They were the first to provide free medicine to poor patients. They maintained personal cleanliness, and for the purpose they built baths. They constructed hospitals and patients were treated by qualified physicians.

The greatest physician was Galen (130-200 CE). He wrote on human Anatomy and Physiology. The knowledge of human Anatomy enabled them to conduct operations and to remove goiters and tonsils. Galen was one of the first to discover the circulation of blood. The natural history of Pliny is a large Compendium of all known science. Aretacus was the first to describe the symptoms of diabetes and diphtheria.

The Romans borrowed the Etruscan rotation system, but it was not developed much above the level of arithmetic. Roman numerals like I, X, L, C etc., are used even today. The ancient Romans used numerals for commercial mathematics. 

Most of the Roman paintings have disappeared. The best of the surviving murals are found in Pompeii. The art of painting was revived through Christian influence in Church Frescoes in the later period.

Treaty of Versailles.

Domestication of animals was followed by the commencement of agriculture. Humans who were food gatherers and hunters till then, now became food growers or food producers. They were prepared to overcome the effects of the climate changes like the ice age by adapting to domestication of animals and agriculture.

Dogs are believed to be the first animals to be domesticated as they were continuously hanging around the hunters’ camps to pick up bones and scrapes of meat. They developed a bond and dogs were domesticated. This was followed by sheep, goat, cow, cat, camel, and horse. Dogs helped humans in hunting and guarding their shelters. The rearing of animals made humans, nomads. Commencement of agriculture is considered as a revolutionary change in the history of human evolution.

This was an important aspect of the Neolithic age. Humans began to grow various crops like wheat, rice, millets etc. The practice of agriculture is not more than 13,000 years old. It made them lead a settled life. This resulted in the formation of human settlements termed villages and later towns. Villages and towns were the foundations of civilizations. 

The Neolithic Age is sometimes called the New Stone Age. Neolithic humans used stone tools like their earlier Stone Age ancestors, who eked out a marginal existence in small bands of hunter-gatherers during the last Ice Age.

Plant domestication: Cereals such as emmer wheat, einkorn wheat and barley were among the first crops domesticated by Neolithic farming communities in the Fertile Crescent. These early farmers also domesticated lentils, chickpeas, peas and flax.

Domestication is the process by which farmers select for desirable traits by breeding successive generations of a plant or animal. Over time, a domestic species becomes different from its wild relative.

Neolithic farmers selected for crops that harvested easily. Wild wheat, for instance, falls to the ground and shatters when it is ripe. Early humans bred for wheat that stayed on the stem for easier harvesting.

Around the same time that farmers were beginning to sow wheat in the Fertile Crescent, people in Asia started to grow rice and millet. Scientists have discovered archaeological remnants of Stone Age rice paddies in Chinese swamps dating back at least 7,700 years.

In Mexico, squash cultivation began about 10,000 years ago, while maize-like crops emerged around 9,000 years ago.

Livestock: The first livestock were domesticated from animals that Neolithic humans hunted for meat. Domestic pigs were bred from wild boars, for instance, while goats came from the Persian ibex. Domesticated animals made the hard, physical labor of farming possible while their milk and meat added variety to the human diet. They also carried infectious diseases: smallpox, influenza, and the measles all spread from domesticated animals to humans.

The first farm animals also included sheep and cattle. These originated in Mesopotamia between 10,000 and 13,000 years ago. Water buffalo and yak were domesticated shortly after in China, India and Tibet.

Draft animals including oxen, donkeys and camels appeared much later—around 4,000 B.C.—as humans developed trade routes for transporting goods.

The Neolithic Revolution led to masses of people establishing permanent settlements supported by farming and agriculture. It paved the way for the innovations of the ensuing Bronze Age and Iron Age, when advancements in creating tools for farming, wars and art swept the world and brought civilizations together through trade and conquest.

India has played an important role in the formation of Non-Aligned Movement. Jawaharlal Nehru, the Prime Minister of India is called the Architect of Non-Aligned Movement. His ‘Panchasheela’ formed the important principles of Non-Aligned Movement. India has not only coined the word‘Non-Aligned’, but has inspired others about it.

The following facts show the relationship between India and NAM. 

1. India has good relations with the other Non-Aligned countries. Nehru’s principles got world recognition in the Bandung conference, which officially declared the Non-Aligned policy.

2. The 7^th summit of Non-Aligned countries was held at Delhi and India’s Prime Minister Smt. Indira Gandhi presided. over the conference. She said we should become a united voice in the international organizations. Disarmament, Economic development, technical help were some of the issues that were discussed in this summit. India insisted Israel to withdraw her troops from Palestine.

3. At the 8^th summit of Non-Aligned countries in Harare, the then Indian Prime Minister Rajeev Gandhi demanded the release of Nelson Mandela of South Africa. He also established the ‘African Fund’ to support the blacks who were fighting for their Rights and Freedom.

4. The 9^th summit of Non-Aligned countries was held at Belgrade the capital of Yugoslavia. In this summit, Rajeev Gandhi gave a call for establishing ‘Global Protection Fund’ for the protection of the Environment.

5. At the 12^th and 13^th summits of Non-Aligned countries, Indian Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee gave a call to take a firm decision to combat international Terrorism. India also supported nuclear disarmament.

6. At the 14^th summit, Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh spoke about international terrorism and nuclear disarmament. At the 15^th summit he brought to the notice of Non- Aligned countries, the Mumbai attacks and terrorism.

At the 16^th summit held in Iran, Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh advocated the need for international action against the spread of nuclear armaments and terrorism. He also gave a call to find a solution to the Syrian problem acceptable to all.

Treaty of Paris in 1919.

Manorial system was an important institution of the high middle ages. Under this system, the serfs worked in agricultural estates situated around a ‘Manor’ owned by a Lord. The serfs were not slaves. They too owned a piece of land, but were under the control and jurisdiction of a Lord. They worked in the Lord’s fields as well as their own and paid taxes to the Lord.

They undertook activities like grazing, collection of fire wood, fishing and cultivation on a common basis. It was like a closed community living. During the later high middle ages, the condition of the serfs improved. They paid rent instead of giving duties or services to the Lord. 

The main principles of Nazism 

1. One party rule 

2. Nazification 

3. Racial Supremacy 

4. Anti-Jewish and anti – religious sentiments 

5. Importance to State.

Mein Kampf or My Struggle. 

George Bush (Sr.) and Boris Yeltsin were the Presidents of America and Russia respectively who ended the cold war.

Nehru and Josip Broz Tito were two of the World leaders at the Bandung Conference.

There were several reasons for the decline of feudalism. The major ones are given here under. 

1. Rise of strong Monarchies: Europe saw the growth of many strong monarchies, where the Kings suppressed the feudal Lords which led to the decline of feudalism.

2. Shifting of loyalty: Common people and serfs were unhappy as they were heavily taxed and felt neglected. They shifted their faith and loyalty to the Kings, which further weakened the hold of the feudal Lords. 

3. Growth of commerce and industry: With the growth in commerce arid industry, people found new ways for livelihood and left their lands. The rise of the independent middle class took place, which was a lethal blow to the feudal Lords. 

4. Dominance of money economy: Payment in the form of services was replaced by money. Commoners and serfs stopped giving military services to Lords, which further depleted their power and dominance.

5. Building of strong armies by the Kings: The use of gun powder and well organised armies resulted in the weakening of feudalism. Commoners and serfs under the protection of Kings felt more secure. 

6. Scarcity of labourers: The growth of industries and commerce provided alternate employment and depleted the labour strength. Spread of epidemics like plague reduced the number of workers. Demand for workers and their increased wages brought down the importance of the feudal Lords. 

7. Struggle between the feudal Lords: The feudal Lords were troublesome to the serfs and commoners and fighting among themselves for control. These internal wars further decreased their number and the Church also put many restrictions on their functioning.

Prophet Mohammad declared “There is no God but Allah and Mohammad is his Prophet”. He criticized the meaningless ceremonials like Idol worship, polytheism and superstitions among Arabs. He preached purity of life, truth and faith in Allah. He preached that Allah would reward the just and punish the wicked. He said “Allah is all merciful, all wise and all powerful”.

The new faith that Mohammad preached was called ‘Islam’ which means “Submission to God Allah’. Islam preaches to be truthful, be faithful and to have good conduct. It preaches equality and condemns slavery. Mohammad advocated the following five pillars or Principles of Islam to be followed by all Muslims.

Kalima: It means faith. Every Muslim should profess his faith in Allah and Mohammad. Namaz, It means prayer. Every Muslim has to pray five times a day. Prayer is the best method to please God and get one’s sins pardoned.

Zaqqat: It means alms giving. Muslims should be honest and sincere. They should give 2.5 % of what they earn in charity. The purpose is to bring economic equality between the rich and the poor.

Roza: It means fasting. Every Muslim should fast in the month of Ramzan, from morning to dusk. Fasting brings purity of heart. It balances the desires, controls one’s habits and creates confidence towards deliverance. It is a proper training to acquire good character.

Hajj: It is the holy pilgrimage to Mecca. True Muslims should undertake Hajj at least once in their life time.

There were other moral codes advocated by the prophet. He prohibited gambling, drinking, adultery and use of pork. He preached the democratic principles of equality and universal brotherhood. He also advocated important moral values like respect for women, parents, and kindness to slaves and animals.

V.K. Krishna Menon of India.

Steady Earth Theory, Pulsating Theory, the Big Bang Theory, etc.,

Deposition of fertile soil, supply of water, favourable climate, plenty of food and river valleyshelped the growth of civilization.

Athens, Sparta, Corinth and Thebes.

Athens, Sparta, Corinth and Thebes. 

Christmas, Good Friday, Easter Sunday.

Christmas, Good Friday, Easter Sunday. 

1. Invention of the moving wheel by humans brought major changes in the professions of potters, carpenters etc., and revolutionized transportation. 

2. Inventions such as use of fire, new weapons, tools, utensils, etc., made life safer from the predators and easier to get food and cook it.

Correct option is (A) October 24 

• Germany opposed the claim of France over Morocco.
• Morocco was given to France.
• France allowed Britain to interfere in Egypt.
• A part of French Congo was given to Germany.

A secret treaty was signed between Britain and France in 1904. According to this, Britain recognised the claim of France over Morocco. The French claim over Morocco was opposed by Germany and she sent battleships to Moroccan port Agadir. This was the Moroccan crisis. France agreed to transfer a part of French Congo to Germany and Germany agreed to concede Morocco to France in return.

Robert Grosseteste, Roger Bacon, Peter Abelard and St. Thomas Aquinas.

Correct option is (A) Germany, Italy, Japan 

Correct option is (C) Italy

New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Mary Land, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Delaware, Pennsylvania and Georgia.

Correct option is (C) Brown Shirts

Correct option is (B) Treaty of Versailles 

New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Mary Land, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Delaware, Pennsylvania and Georgia, (any two).

History is the memory of the ancient past, teaches religious tolerance, is a source of inspiration, promotes patriotism, a laboratory of social sciences, infuses noble ideals, helps to broaden one’s outlook, has professional uses and removes prejudices. 

1. History is the memory of the past events: The study of history gives us information about the biographies of great men and a record of major events of the world. According to Will Durant, “A country’s past is like an individual’s memory. If memory goes, sanity goes with it”. Hayes and Moon wrote “As memory is to man, History is to mankind”.

2. History helps to broaden our outlook: The study of history helps us to get knowledge about the people of different countries, traditions, customs, cultures, and civilizations. Thus it broadens the outlook of mankind. The details recorded in history relating to Art, Architecture, Literature, and Religion expands one’s horizon of knowledge.

3. History promotes international peace: The world has already witnessed the misgivings of the two World Wars, ff another war takes place in the future, it would destroy the whole world. History has pointed out that unawareness of the culture of other countries and narrow nationalism has lead to such wars. Today, there is a great deal of competition among different countries in possessing nuclear weapons and war equipment’s. For the development of cordial relations between nations, the study of world history is the need of the hour.

4. History nurtures and instills nationalistic feelings: (in every nation has a past and ‘ there definitely would have been a golden era under some enlightened ruler in-the part. Knowing about that makes the people of a nation to be proud of their ancestors and spun them on to regain the part glory, (e.g) Mussolini could unite the warring Italian states by highlighting the roman empire and its glory.

5. History has Professional uses: It is a competitive world. History is the main core-subject for the competitive examinations like IAS, IPS, IFS, KAS, etc. Historical knowledge is a matter of necessity for Students, Teachers, Lawyers, Journalists, Administrators, and Statesmen. Thousands of historians are working in the Department of Archaeological survey of India under central and state governments. New job opportunities have opened up for the students of history at Museums, Archives, Tourism development, and related fields.

1. Humanism: The renaissance scholars began to take deep interest in the study of man and his achievements. The humanists promoted rational and humanistic approach, They tried to bring learning into close relation with life. The main idea of this movement was the cultivation of the human personality. Dante, Petrarch, Boccaccio, Cicero, Cervantes and other humanists promoted classical literature. They were called the ‘Morning Stars’.

2. Classicism: A very important feature in Europe during Renaissance was the revival of interest in ancient Greek and Latin classics. This manifested as an expression of classism in Literature along with Art and Architecture. A classical culture developed Europe.

3. Vernacular languages: Renaissance in Europe resulted in the development of vernacular languages like English, German, Spanish and Italian as well. Classical literature in Latin and Greek were translated or written in the vernacular languages. This activity popularised classical literature and developed the vernacular languages also. 

4. Renaissance scholars or Rise of new ideas: The teachings of the medieval age were not progressive and the church controlled all the activities of the people. Religious beliefs, political principles, and social standards were all stagnant in this period. The invention of the printing press made it very convenient and easy to spread the new ideas and thoughts to all the nooks and corners of the world. People became enlightened and progressive. The major literary works of this period were the following: Dante’s Divine Comedy. Machiavelli’s The Prince, Sir Thomas More’s Utopia, John Milton’s Paradise Lost, and Paradise Regained, Shakespeare’s numerous Comedies, Tragedies, and Plays, Cervantes’ Don Quixote, etc.,

‘Communist Manifesto’ and ‘Das Capital’.

Correct option is (A) Support to democracy 

There were several reasons for the decline of feudalism. The major ones are given here under.

1. Rise of strong Monarchies: Europe saw the growth of many strong monarchies, where the Kings suppressed the feudal Lords which led to the decline of feudalism. 

2. Shifting of loyalty: Common people and serfs were unhappy as they were heavily taxed and neglected. So, they shifted their faith and loyalty towards their Kings. This weakened the hold of the feudal Lords. So, the system collapsed. 

3. Growth of commerce and industry: With the growth in commerce and industry, people found new ways for livelihood and left their lands. The rise of the independent middle class took place, which was a lethal blow to the feudal Lords. 

4. Dominance of money Economy: Payment in the form of services was replaced by money. Commoners and serfs stopped giving military services to Lords, which further depleted their power and dominance.

5. Building of strong armies by the Kings: The use of gun powder and well organised armies resulted in the weakening of feudalism. Commoners and serfs under the protection of l Kings felt more secure. 

6. Scarcity of labourers: The growth of industries and commerce provided alternate I employment and depleted the labour strength. Spread of epidemics like plague reduced the number of workers. Demand for workers and their increased wages brought down the importance of the feudal Lords. 

7. Struggle between the feudal Lords: The feudal Lords were troublesome to the serfs and commoners pd fighting among themselves for control. These infernal wars further decreased their number and the Church also put many restrictions on their functioning.

Bismarck-Blood and Iron Policy

Bismarck-Blood and iron Policy.

Harrys Truman was the president of USA at the time of the end of second world war. By this, he provided Greece and Turkey Economic and Military aids to the tune of 400 million dollars.

The French Revolution of 1830, also known as the July Revolution, Second French Revolution or Trois Glorieuses in French, saw the overthrow of King Charles X, the French Bourbon monarch, and the ascent of his cousin Louis-Philippe, Duke of Orléans, who himself, after 18 precarious years on the throne, would in turn be overthrown in 1848. It marked the shift from one constitutional monarchy, the Bourbon Restoration, to another, the July Monarchy; the transition of power from the House of Bourbon to its cadet branch, the House of Orléans; and the replacement of the principle of hereditary right by popular sovereignty. Supporters of the Bourbon would be called Legitimists, and supporters of Louis Philippe Orléanists.

Harry S-Truman was the president of America at the time of the ending of second world war. This was aimed at US support to the people of the nations who were resisting subjugation by armed minorities and external pressones. By this, he provided Greece and Turkey Economic and military aid to the tune of 400 million dollars.

a. ii, 

b. i,

c. iv, 

d. iii

Common Wealth of Independent States. It is at Minsk in Belarvs.

Non-Aligned Movement is the second largest international organisation in the world. NAM is the unity of countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America which were colonies of imperialist powers. NAM succeeded to some extent in reducing the intensity of cold war and arms race. It has great relevance in the unipolar world of today. NAM can expose the evils of globalisation and prevent the intervention of new imperialists on the social, economic and environmental sectors of third world countries.