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After the culmination of ancient civilization in Greek and Rome, the medieval period began to arise. Between 13th and 16th century, some unusual circumstances occurred in Europe, about the consciousness in humans. This awakening in consciousness is called Renaissance.

In Europe the Renaissance is due to the following reasons :

• Crusade : The religious wars between Muslims and Christians led Europeans to come in contact with people from Eastern countries. They had come to know about new thoughts and new progressive knowledge that had lesser effect of church on people. 
• Trade Growth : After the crusades, Europe established trade relations with Eastern countries. New cities began to rise. These cities became centre for international trade. In these places different traders and visitors regularly began to travel, this allowed exchange of thoughts. People began to argue about good and bad, this in turn gave way to independent thinking and improved the knowledge. This situation gave direction to the growth of Renaissance.
• Innovations of Paper and Printing Material: Printing material innovation opened the path for mental growth. In 1455 AD the innovation of Printing Press by Johannes Gutenberg helped the history and culture of Rome to reach each household easily. This led to the emotions of Renaissance among people. 
• Turkey’s control over Constantinople : In 1453 AD after the victory of Ottoman Turks over Constantinople, Greek intellectuals, artists and philosophers for their livelihood left for other nations in Europe. They took along with diem Greek knowledge, science and new awakening pattern and this established coordination among Greek and Rome civilization and birth of Renaissance. 
• The growth of Humanitarianism : The rise in humanitarianism made people angry about the religious control on human life. Humanitarians criticized the principles of non believers and religious zealots and to make public recivilized, gave emphasis on primitive Roman and Greek literature by which people had the inspiration for Renaissance. 
• The rise of Mongol Kingdom : With the rise of Mongol Kingdom a contact emerged between Asia and Europe. Marco Polo in his travelogue has written about the prosperity of Mongol kingdom. This spread the awareness among Europeans.

The results of Renaissance : Renaissance not only influenced literature, art and science but every aspect of human life. 

In these circumstances the following results of Renaissance took place.

• Renaissance accorded humans an opportunity in the form of independent expressions. A person was able to express in any form in his individual capacity. 
• Renaissance made humans materialistic. Victory over nature, scientific innovations and geographical findings became the objective for them. 
• Scientific perspectives and logical analysis condemned the traditions and principles of medieval religious tenets and continued religious reformation 
• Through Renaissance the people developed love for ancient knowledge. 
• By Renaissance the power of religion became weak and as a result nationalism grew. Nationalism’s emotions drew interests about growth in nation and its progress.

Correct Answer is: (b) 1453 AD

Decline of feudalism in the 13 th and 14th centuries provided an impetus to free thinking. The peace and freedom that prevailed after the decline of feudalism favored the growth of New Learning. It led to the new developments in the spheres of art, literature, philosophy and science and contributed to the rise of Renaissance.

1. Italy was the seat of the glorious Roman Empire and all the historical remains and relics of the Roman were found there. These attracted a number of scholars and artists. 

2. The enormous wealth which Italy had accumulated as a result of trade with the East also contributed to the rise of Renaissance.

Constantipole fell into the hands of the Turks in AD 1453. Many Greek and Roman Scholars were forced to Rome and other parts of Europe with their manuscripts. They spread the knowledge of Greek culture to European countries.

The effects of the Renaissance were as follows: 

1. The Renaissance led to the Reformation Movement: The urge to know the unknown by questioning, observation and experimentation brought an end to the supremacy and’ domination of the Church, which eventually led to Reformation. 

2. Great overlfow of Vernacular Literature: The Renaissance helped in the growth of vernaculars. In England, there was the famous Shakespeare and a contemporary of Shakespeare in Spain was Cervantes, who wrote ‘Done Quixote’. In France, Moliere became the founder of the ‘Comedie Francaise’, the National Theatre. 

3. Consequences of Geographical Explorations: Geographical discoveries, commercial relations were established between Europe and the East. Trade brought unprecedented prosperity to the countries of Europe. For England and Spain, America also yielded immense wealth. This led to Colonialism. European countries controlled America, Asia and Africa and used their resources to increase their own power. 

4. The Humanist’s Belief in Man: Earlier people subordinated themselves to the interests of the Church or the Class to which they belonged. Now, they began to look at themselves as ‘Individuals’. They believed in man’s’ability to achieve happiness and freedom without the need for religion. The Renaissance art and literature reflected aspirations of the ordinary people at that time. 

5. Rise and Growth of Nation-Slates: The feelings of nationality and progress of national literature led to the rise and growth of Nation-States.

In 1453, the Ottoman Turks sieged the City Constantinople and the Greek scholars fled to Italy.

The term ‘Renaissance’, means re-birth or revival. It stands for a complex transitional movement in Europe between medieval and modem times beginning in the 14th century in Italy and lasting into the 17th century.

Vasco-de-Gama, a Portuguese explorer reached Kerala’s coastal town of Calicut in 1498.

The first printing press was set up in Germany in 1456 by Gutenberg. Later on, Caxton introduced it in England. The invention of printing press in the middle of 15th century in Europe made it possible to produce books in large numbers e.g. the Bible and many other religious and classical books ! were printed all over Europe.

The evil practices of Roman Catholic churches was as under:

1. They used to take high taxes called tithe to the people

2. They tried to got the extra money by various steps such as papmochan patra 

3. They also ruled sometimes against Kings.

4. They used to take liquors which was against their religion.

5. They got up married also that was wrong.

Petrarch, a great scholar and writer, has been called ‘the father of humanism’. His sonnets and lyrics were popular throughout Europe.

Two causes that led to the advent of Renaissance are: 

1. The Capture of Constantinople by the Turks. 

2. Decline of Feudalism.

Two causes were:

1. The decline of feudalism gave way to ‘ Social mobility’ 

2. Co-operation of kings, nobles and wealthy people patronised this movement e.g. The Medici family of Florence patronised the Renaissance artists.

Two important effects of the Renaissance are: 

1. The Renaissance led to the Reformation Movement. 

2. Great Outflow of Vernacular Literature.

The Crusades were the religious expeditionary wars with the goal of restoring the Church’s access to holy places in and near Jerusalem. They brought the people of Europe into direct contact with the people of Asia. The Crusades brought to Western Europe ideas from the East. It widened their outlook on life and destroyed dogmatic attitude.

The invention of printing press made it possible to product books in large numbers. The holy Bible and many other religious and classical books were printed and made available all over Europe.

Machiavelli, wrote ‘The Prince’. It influenced the polity o that time, suggesting that political matters should b separated from religion.

The following were the factors which were responsible for the development of the spirit of enquiry: 

(a) Crusades: The Crusades were the religious expeditionary wars with the goal of restoring the Church’s access to holy places in and near Jerusalem. They brought the people of Europe into direct contact with the people of Asia, the Crusades brought to Western Europe ideas from the East. It widened their outlook on life and destroyed dogmatic attitude. People began reason rather than on blind faith. 

(b) Development of Science: In the age of faith, science had little scope for development. But certain medieval scholars showed a scientific attitude and asked their students to observe things in nature. This brought in many new inventions and discoveries. Development of science created the spirit of enquiry and scientific temper. Roger Bacon contemplated the use of horseless carriages and flying machines. Copernicus proved that the earth moves round the sun. Galileo invented the telescope. These inventions broadened the mental outlook of the people and put an end to the old beliefs and traditions.

1. Remarkable statues of bronze e.g. statue of David by Donatello and ‘Pieta’ by Michelangelo. 

2. Lorenzo Ghiberti in Italy made two pairs of bronze doors for the Baptistery at Florence.

Rulers like—King Francis I of France, King Henry VIII and Queen Elizabeth I of England, Charles V of Spain and Christian II of Denmark encouraged the movement.

The art of painting raised to a significant level and depicted various real pictures of life appreciated by the people who also got inspiration from the lively paintings. The artists used geometrical ratios in paintings along with human anatomy for gestures and expressions. 

The famous artists and paintings are: 

1. Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519)- ‘Virgin of the Rocks’, ‘Last Super’ and ‘Mona Lisa’ etc. 

2. Michelangelo (1475-1564)- ‘Last judgement’, ‘The Fall of Man’. 

3. Raphael (1483-1520) – ‘Sistine Madonna’ and Designing of St. Peter’s Church.

The most significant impact of Renaissance was the use of local languages instead of Latin. England produced a number of writers, poets and dramatists, of repute. Geoffrey Chaucer “Father of English Poetry’, “The Canterbury Tales’, is his outstanding work. ‘Utopia’ written by Thomas More about an ideal island in America. Famous writers were Francis Bacon, William Shakespeare, Ben Johnson and Marlowe. ‘Paradise Lost’ is an immortal work of Milton. Edmund Spencer wrote the poem ‘Faerie Queene”.

The revival of the study of antiquity left a great impact in the field of sculpture. Some of the Renaissance artists copied the great masterpieces of the Greeks and Romans, while the others produced outstanding pieces which could rival the Greek creations.

Some of the outstanding sculptors of the Renaissance period were: 

1. Donatello (1386-1466) – bronze statue of David. 

2. Lorenzo Ghiberti, bronze doors for Baptistery at Florence. 

3. Michelangelo, ‘Pieta’, showing Mother Mary and Jesus. Statues of David and Moses. 

4. Many Italian sculptors worked to decorate Church and palaces. In this way architecture developed was very much in this period.

(a) Copernicus (AD 1473-1543), held that the earth was round and earth, the moon and other planets moved round the sun in a circle. Later on, German Scientist John Kepler (1571-1630) proved that the earth and the other planets move round the sun not in a circle but in elliptical orbits. Italian Scientist Galileo (1564-1642) invented telescope.

Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) discovered the law of Gravitation. 

(b) Great discoveries were made in medical sciences. 

1. Vesalius (1514-1564) wrote a treatise on anatomy. 

2. William Harvey (1578-1657), discovered circulation of blood from heart to all parts of the body and back to the heart. 

3. Paracelsus (1493-1541) proved a close connection between medicine and chemistry. 

4. Cordus (1515-1544) prepared ether from alcohol and sulphuric acid. 

5. Helmontt (1577-1644), discovered carbon dioxide. 

(c) Arabs gave Algebra and numerals to the West. Modern Geometry was made systematic by Desargues (1593-1662). Stevin advocated decimal system of coins, weights and measures.

The Last Super’ and ‘Monalisa’ were famous paintings created by Leonardo Da Vinci.

As Italy became a centre for business activities, the cities of Naples, Florence, Milan & Venice were established near sea-coasts.

In the philosophy of humanitarian life, special importance is given to human and his stages of life. Humanitarian thoughts are based on the belief that human being is capable to take decisions about self and improve his efficiency. Petrarch,Michelangelo, Machiavelli and Dante were Renaissance period’s main humanitarians. These humanitarians objected to spread of orthodoxy and backwardness and raised voice against Medieval European system.

During Renaissance, people received opportunity for freedom of expression by which in human mind a new perspective took birth to have the curiosity to know the mysteries of nature. In the 16th century, new scientific principles were established. 

These are as follows :

• Poland’s scientist Copernicus made the heliocentric principle of solar system by which it was proved that all heavenly bodies revolve around the sun. 
• German astronomer Johan Kepler verified Copernicus’ principles on the basis of mathematical proofs. 
• British scientist and mathematician, Issac Newton, established the principles of gravity. 
• French mathematician and philosopher, Descartes, applied trignometry in Geometry. 
• Italian scientist Galeleo invented the principle of Pendulum, air measuring instrument and telescope. 

Above mentioned inventions proved that science is not based on belief but overview and utilise practicality. By the inventions of scientists there were innovations in different fields and this brought the idea that world runs on self facilitated principles and not divine power.

Italy was the main centre of trade between Europe and Asia. By this foreign trade a prosperous middle class rose. As the middle class became powerful, the people of this class opposed feudals and Pope, and medieval religious orthodoxy was rejected. Middle class was influenced by civilization, culture and lifestyle. In this class a new awakening of renaissance was spread.

There were many reasons behind it: 

(a) Italy was the main centre for trade. The prosperous middle class of Italy criticized the religious control there. 

(b) The trading community of Italy was inspired by the culture & civilization of Asians, that’s why Italy became the main centre for Renaissance. 

(c) The high living standard of the prosperous cities like Naples, Florence, Milan & Venice influenced the Europeans, because of that an intense influence was also created and it developed the feeling of Renaissance powerfully. 

(d) The Turks captured Constantinople that forced the Greek artists and intellectuals to settle in Italy for their survival. They carried the ancient knowledge and literature with them. This knowledge and literature inspired, motivated & created awareness among the Europeans.

In England the industrialisation occurred first. 

The start of Industrial revolution began due to following circumstances:

• Abundance of mineral rich areas : In England the coal and iron mines were in abundance. Their utilisation was nearly in all types of industries. The raw material localities were established wherein raw material was available on cheaper rates. 
• Vast Colonial Empire : Britain had a vast colonial Empire. For example, India was also England’s colony. The raw materials cotton and indigo were sent from India to Britain and the finished goods were prepared by British factories and sold in International market at huge profits. 
• Increase in Population : Due to increase in population, the labourers and skilled manpower were avaialble in abundance. Factories and mills were opened by which the population of cities increased and people began to get employment as workers in factories. 
• The local authority market not to interfere in system : From 17th century the three parts of England, i. e., England, Wales and Scotland were ruled by one King. In the entire state one law system, one monetary system and one market system existed. In this market there was no interfemce of local authority and no tax could be levied on the material that passed through the area. 
• The utility of money in exchange form : Till the 17th century the utility of money was in exchange or barter form. People stated to take earnings instead of things into money form or currency. People were required to spend money and sell goods through the necessary market. In this way market growth occurred that was an important means or concern for industrial revolution. 
• The growth of Bank system : In Britain the growth of banks took place. In 1694 AD the Bank of England was established. This bank was the centre of Financial system. In England till 1784 AD there were more than 100 regional banks through which people could get loans to run set up industries. 
• Political stability : In Britain from 17th century the period of political stability began. In whole of Britain the rule of one king, one law system, one market system kept control on production and sales. 
• Favourable Geographical situation : A major portion of Britain lay on the shores of sea and this was quite beneficial for the cotton industry. This is the reason that textile industry began in England for the first time. 
• Agricultural Revolution : In the 18th century England passed through the phase of Economic change that is called agricultural revolution. In accordance to this, big landlords captured or grabbed the land of small farmers and public land, by which production increased but landless farmer, shepherds and cattle owners went to cities in search of employment. 
• Scientific inventions : In 18th century there were many scientists, who made useful inventions in the field of agriculture, processing, textiles, transport and other fields. These inventions helped in success of Industrial Revolution. Other than these the invention of steam power further accelerated the Industrial Revolution.

The Industrial Revolution in England occurred due to the following reasons

• The Political conditions of England : The ruling system or pattern of England’s parliament was so stable that the peace in the country could not be made unstable by any ups and downs. 
• Renaissance and geographical discoveries : Due to renaissance the people were filled with new energy and enthusiasm that flowed through them. The result of renaissance was that Europeans came in contact with other countries. In different continents, new colonies were settled and with these colonies the trade and commerce began. The invention of machines and instruments was significant for large scale production. In this way renaissance became the indirect reason for industrial revolution. 
• Increase in Population : As and when the population of Europe increased, the problem of livelihood also increased. In this way people began to do other work other than agriculture and trade. With the growth of population the purchasing power or demand for daily needs increased. The rise in demands led to the grounds for Industrial Revolution. 
• Colonial Competence : Each country in comparison to other countries wishes to be supreme. This was a type of competition. Extension of colonial empire was the direct result of competence. The colonial empires used the availability of raw material and consumption of finished goods to assist in Industrial Revolution. 
• The increase in living standards : As the people received facilities, their living standard developed. The growing demands pushed the industrial growth. 
• The establishment of colonies : New geographical discoveries inspired the establishment of colonies in European countries. In order to reach these colonies the European countries had to develop the transport facilities. The raw material was made available by colonies and the market was provided for finished goods. In this way, the colonial establishment helped in Industrial Revolution. 
• Cheap Labour : The agrarian system was changed. Due to this change, the work of agriculture was done on large machines. Many unemployed agriculturists in villages were bound to do labour in cities. They were ready to work on low remuneration. As a result, cheap labour was easily available. People in order to establish industry and factories got special concessions. 
• The natural resources of Iron and Coal: The way iron is required to construct or build new machines and new instruments in the same way power is required to run industrial mechines. This power can be obtained from coal. In England there were big natural, reserves of iron and coal that were a lifeline for industry. These resources played an important role in the growth of Industrial Revolution.

On account of renaissance and religious reformation movement in Europe, the materialistic thinking increased and due to this there was remarkable growth in commericalisation and industrial establishments. 

This growth affected the economic, social and political spheres of system.

Meaning of Industrial Revolution : The term Industrial Revolution was used by European intellectual of France ‘Georges Michel’ and Germany’s ‘Cedric Engels’. The use of this word in English was utilized by philosopher and economist ‘Arnold Toynbee’ to explain the changes that led to industrial growth between 1760 AD and 1820 AD in England. Definitions of Industrial Revolution : 

Different historians have given different definitions for Industrial Revolution.

• According to G.W. Southgate “Industrial Revolution was change in industrial system in which in place of handicrafts the work was taken from power-backed or controlled instruments and the change in industrial organisation was there. In comparison to running of industry in home the work shifted to industries”. 
• According to C.D. Hagen “The mechanisation of cottage industry is Industrial Revolution.” 
• According to Davin, “The meaning of Industrial Revolution is about changes that made possible that human sacrifice ancient or primitive methods of production for wide ranging mass production of articles or things from industries.

By the industrial revolution the following changes took place in Britain.

• Handcraft and cottage industries were replaced by machines. 
• For the operation or control of machines in place of water power, steam power, fossil fuel and hydroelectric power was utilised. 
• For the fulfillment of steel demand, the steel plants were opened. 
• Agriculture became commercialised. In the agriculture work machines were utilised. 
• The utility of capital increased and banking system developed.
• Loans, human labour and minimum production principle was introduced or adopted. 
• Organised trade systems were developed to increase international trade. 
• For the growth of transport facilities, rail engine and instrument driven vehicles or ships were utilised.

Martin Luther was a German Monk. He is called the transformer of religious reforms. He was bom in 1483 AD. In 1517 AD he wrote a book titled ‘Ninty Five Thesis’. In 1522 AD, he translated Bible into German language.

In 1517 AD, into the grip of greed of money started selling an affidavit aimed to register forgiveness letters in Bittenburg. Martin Luther criticised the medium of affidavit to grab money from people and started a movement against Catholic churches. He assured the public that to get connected with God there is no need of the clergy or the Pope. This movement was called Protestant Reformation Movement.

Galelio is the innovator of wind measuring instrument and Telescope.

Industrial Revolution first vegan in England.

Industrial revolution began with cotton textile industry.

Correct Answer is: (a) Machiavelli

George Stephenson invented the steam engine to take coal from mines to dockyards on rails.

Abraham Durby invented the Blast Furnace in 1709.

At first France’s Georges Michel and Germany’s Fredrick Engles utilised the word ‘Industrial Revolution.

England’s first canal was named ‘Worsley’. The construction was done in 1761 by James Brindley.

(b) Ferdinad T. Lesseps

Ignasious Loyola was Spain’s brave soldier. He dedicated his whole life for the Catholic church. In 1534 AD he established ‘Society of Jesus’ to counter the reformation movement.

Correct Answer is: (d) Dante