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Causes for low productivity in India are : 

1. The role of law of succession, excessive pressure of increasing population, disintegration of joint families, leasing practice and the role of moneylenders is main in this regard. 

2. The agricultural productivity is low in India on account of social atmosphere of villages that includes traditional orthodoxy, fatalism, superstition, ignorance etc. 

3. The size of holdings in India is small, because of which the agricultural investment is more, making the productivity low. 

4. Even today, zamindars, influential people, moneylenders are on entity. 

5. Farmers are using backward agricultural technology even today. 

6. Even today, people are dependent upon rainfall and irrigation facilities have not developed significantly. 

7. The crop value provided to farmers is not motivating.

Muslin from Dhaka, Indian spices, jute, clothes, etc. were famous across the world for their quality.

Agricultural products have been the major items of Indian exports, i.e., tea, tobacco, hot spices, dry fruits, oil seeds, etc. This earns us foreign currency and thus foreign exchange reserves increase.

Various boundations that were imposed on moneylenders in various states were : 

1. Putting boundation on compound interest. 

2. Lenders can only recover those expenditures that are mentioned in the law. 

3. Putting boundation on false promises other than basics. 

4. Putting boundation on the provisions that were related to other states.

Cooperative Societies : The establishement of Cooperative Credit Institutes began in India in 1904. Their contribution in total institutional credit 2013-14 was 16.9 per cent. 

Cooperative Credit Institutes are divided into a 3 tier system :

• Primary Credit Societies : They have been set up at the village level. A minimum of 10 persons can establish it in a village or region. It provides loans for production work. 
• Central Co-operative Banks : These are set up at a district level and their main function is to provide loans to Primary Credit Societies. They function as intermediaries between state cooperative banks and Primary Credit Societies. The tenure of loan ranges from 1-3 years. 
• State Co-operative Banks : These have been set up at the state level. Long term loans are provided by them to district cooperative banks, and in addition to this, they also exercise control over their functioning. These are financed by the Reserve Bank.

(d) Cooperative Societies

High yielding variety of wheat seeds were discovered by the agricultural scientist Dr. Norman E. Borlaug while performing research in Mexico, which could increase wheat productivity by 200-250 times.

In Mexico and Taiwan.

Farmers were exploited in many ways- like- fixing of huge interest, no written accounts for loans, fiddling in loans, getting fake signs on blank papers by the farmers. When farmers were not able to pay off the debt, they were forced to worked as “haali” or they were abolished from the ownership of land. This was the major policy of zamindars and moneylenders. .

Agricultural inputs : Agricultural production and productivity depend upon the Agricultural Inputs. If they are used in a proper way, then agricultural productivity and production can be increased rapidly.

Major Agricultural inputs are :

i. Fertilizers : When these fertilizers are used along with organic fertilizers, the crop production increases rapidly. Only Nitrogen (N) and Phosphorous (P) are produced in India. For Potash(K), we are totally depend upon imports. The Standard ratio of consumption of these fertilizers is 4:2:1. But in India, in 2013-14 the ratio of consumption of N:P:K is 8.2:3.2:1. That shows the imbalance. The government is providing fertilizers to the farmers at a rate lower than the actual amount. Due to which, burden of subsidy is continuous increasing on the government.

ii. Irrigation : Only 44.9% land has been provided the facility of irrigation. Remaining 53.1% depends upon the rain. In 1950-51, India’s irrigational area was 22.6 million hectare which increased to 113.2 million hectare in 2011-12.

iii. High Yielding Variety of Seeds : Special emphasis was laid on the use of high yielding variety of seeds during the green revolution. The government had been trying to concentrate on the high yielding variety of seeds right from the commencement of the plan period, but this was achieved in the kharif crop of 1966, when high yielding variety of seeds were adopted. This programme was adopted as a package programme, since sufficient irrigation facilities, use of fertilizers and insecticides was necessary at places where the programme was to be implemented.

High yielding seeds varieties were imported from Mexico for wheat. Greater success was achieved in wheat crop theough the use of high yielding seeds, while success in rice, barley, millets, maize etc. was negligible. This programme failed to touch some important crops like- pulses, oilseeds, vegetables, fruit, etc.

iv. Pesticides and Insecticides : 10-15 per cent of crops are destroyed every year in India due to insufficient crop protection, therefore it is necessary to protect these from crop- diseases. Maximum use of pesticides and insecticides in India is done for paddy and cotton crops. Use of pesticides has increased since the green revolution. In 1970-71, this use was 24.3 thousand tons which increased to 50.58 thousand tons in 2011-12.

v. Mechanization of Agriculture : The use of machines and equipment in agriculture received a major and extensive boost, which changed the traditional form of agriculture into a modem form.

vi. Conclusion : Therefore, it can be said that with proper utilization and care, the desired achievement can be made in the field of agriculture.

Special emphasis was laid on high-yielding varieties (HYV) of seeds during the green revolution. The success in this field was achieved in the Kharif crop of 1966, when high yielding seeds varieties were adopted. High yielding seeds varieties were imported from Mexico for wheat. Greater success was achieved in wheat crop through the use of high yielding seeds. The Father of Green Revolution in India is considered to be Dr. M.S.Swaminathan, while in the global context, this credit goes to Norman E. Borlaug.

Thus, the new strategy was related to HYV seeds and as a collective package which was related to the total economy.

The strategy for green revolution in India has been divided into two stages:

• First stage is called the stage of centralization : It was limited to the crop of wheat and rice. In this stage, the productivity of wheat increased rapidly, and so it is also called the stage centralized on wheat crop. 
• Second stage : A group of 5 crops was included in this stage. This included wheat, rice, millets, barley and maize.The programme was implemented in other parts of the country, and so it is also called the ‘stage of decentralisation’.The emphasis was given on ‘dry farming’.

Success or Impact of Green Revolution : 

1. The productivity of wheat per hectare increased from 851 kg to 3075 kg. For this, it was called “Wheat Revolution”. 

2. Increase in use of fertilizers. 

3. Irrigation facilities expanded rapidly. 

4. The use of machines and equipment in agriculture received a major and extensive boost, which transformed the traditional form of agriculture to a modem form. 

5. Use of pesticides and high-yielding varieties of seeds also increased extensively.

Setbacks of Green Revolution : 

1. The greatest effect of green revolution was on wheat, but the green revolution was ineffective on crude grains, pulses and oil seeds. 

2. The effect of green revolution remained limited to some regions only, which started the process of unbalanced development in agricultural development. 

3. The problem of agricultural finance persisted mainly in Indian economy. 

4. Only educated and prosperous farmers could reap the benefits of the new agricultural strategy. 

5. Green Revolution has ecological effects too, i.e. increase in salinity, soil erosion, problem of waterlogging, lowering of ground level etc. 

6. Only big farmers could benefit from agricultural subsidies given by the government.

Thus, we can infer that the effect of green revolution was limited to certain regions and big farmers only.

Second Green Revolution.

Government credit institutions have been divided into the following types under three-tier cooperative system :

• Primary Credit Societies : These have been set up at the village level. At least 10 persons can establish it in a village or region. They provide loan for productive works.
• Central Co-operative Banks : These are set up at a district level and their main function is to make loans available to primary credit Societies. They function as intermediaries between state cooperative banks and primary credit societies. The period of loan extended by them ranges from 1-3 years. 
• State Co-operative Banks : These have been set up at the state level. Long term loans are provided by them to district cooperative banks, and in addition to this, they also exercise control over their functioning. These are financed by the Reserve Bank.

According to Central Statistical Organization, the contribution of agriculture in gross domestic product was 56.6 per cent in 1950-51, which decreased to 15.2 per cent during the eleventh five year plan.

To resolve the problem of sub-division and fragmentation, the consolidation of holdings was done. Consolidation implied providing farmland at one place to the farmer instead of fields scattered around places in the village. That is how agriculture could be reorganized.

1. The continuously growing population. Also till today, 3/4th of the population still depends upon agriculture for its livelihood. 

2. The agricultural productivity is low in India on account of social atmosphere of villages that includes traditional orthodoxy, fatalism, superstition, ignorance etc. 

3. The size of holdings in India is small because of which the agricultural investment is more, keeping the productivity low. 

4. Farmers are using primitive agricultural technology even today.

1. Abolition of Intermediaries, 

2. Tenancy Reforms, 

3. Consolidation of Holdings, 

4. Reorganisation of Agriculture.

Reforms done under land reforms are as follows : 

• Abolition of Intermediaries : The chief weapon for stagnancy in agricultural sector were the Zamindars or intermediaries. It was not difficult to provide permanent system in states where land records and administrative machinery were already present. But in such states where land records were not available, implementing these in those states countered difficulties ie. Bihar, Odisha, West Bengal, Rajasthan, Saurashtra etc. The Zamindari, Ryotwari and Mahalwari systems were abolished, and laws were made for this. This created a direct contact between the farmers and the government. 
• Tenancy Reforms : It was proposed that in the first five year plan the maximum lagaan should not exceed 1/5 to 1/4 of the total production. Ownership rights were given to the tenants. Laws were enacted in many states in this regard. More success was achieved in West Bengal, Karnataka and Kerala, as compared to other states. 
• Consolidation of Holdings : The maximum limit of agricultural land kept by an individual or a family was fixed. The sub-division and fragmentation of holdings in the country took place due to various legal, social, economic and demographic reasons. 
• Reorganisation of Agriculture : To resolve the problem of sub-division and fragmentation, the consolidation of holdings was done. Consolidation implied providing farmland at one place to the farmer instead of fields scattered around places in the village. The laws implemented by the government under land reforms could achieve partial success only. The Zamindars took advantage of the flaws in the laws and declared themselves to be farmers.

Tenancy reforms : 

• Regulation of Land Revenue : It was proposed in the first five year plan that the maximum land revenue should not exceed 1/5 to 3/4 of the total production. 
• Protection of Tenant Rights : Various plans were made for the protection of rights of tenants to stop the interference of tenants, to give the farmers the ownership of land and while giving back the ownership rights to the farmers, leaving some part of land for the tenants. 
• Ownership rights were given to the farmers : Laws were enacted in many states in this regard. More success was achieved in West Bengal, Karnataka and Kerala, as compared to other states.

1. The productivity of wheat per hectare increased from 851 kg to 3075 kg. for this, it was called “wheat Revolution”. 

2. The use of machines and equipment (mechanisation) in agriculture received a major and extensive boost. 

3. Use of fertilizers increased. 

4. Use of irrigation facilities increased.

Land reform : Land reform refers to the redistribution of land ownership for the benefit of small and marginal farmers and agricultural labourers. According to Prof. Mirdal, “Land reform refers to planning and institutional reconstitution in context to individuals and land.”

Programmes for land reform

i. Abolition of Intermediaries : The Zamindari, Ryotwari and Mahalwari systems were abolished, and laws were made for this. This created a direct contact between the farmers and the government.

ii. Tenancy Reforms :

• Regulation of land Revenue : It was proposed that in the first five year plan the maximum land revenue should not exceed 1/5 to 1/4 of the total production. 
• Protection of the rights of tenants : Various plans were made for the protection of the rights of tenants, to stop the interference of tenants, to give the farmers the ownership of land and while giving back the ownership rights to the farmers, leaving some part of land for the tenants. 
• Ownership rights were given to the tenants : Laws were enacted in many states in this regard. More success was achieved in West Bengal, Karnataka and Kerala, as compared to other states. 
• Resumption of land in self tenancy : States have been divided into four categories under the resumption laws.

iii. Consolidation of Holdings : The maximum limit of agricultural land kept by an individual or a family was fixed. The sub-division and fragmentation of holdings in the country took place due to various legal, social, economic and demographic reasons.

iv. Reorganisation of Agriculture :

• Consolidation : To resolve the problem of sub-division and fragmentation, the consolidation of holdings was done. Consolidation implied providing farmland at one place to the farmer instead of fields scattered around places in the village. 
• Betterment in arrangement of land : Under this, during the 1st and 2nd planning phase, priority was given to the development of land, i.e., to make the land leveled, to transform barren land suitable for agriculture, use of high yielding seed varieties, good quality fertilizers, modem equipments, etc.
• Cooperative farming : At the end of first five year plan, India had only 1000 cooperative societies. In the Nagpur session in 1959, the Congress provided momentum to the development of cooperative farming as it declared joint cooperative development as the ultimate target of agricultural reforms.

Stability to Landless Farmers and Land- Donation and Village Donation : Under this scheme, landless farmers were to be provided land for living. But still, 19% of the farmers are landless till today. The scheme was made in first five year plan, but still till today this problem is present.

It was started in 1951 by Vinoba Bhave. According to him, “The aim behind this movement is to remove social and economical disturbances without any struggle”. The mission of the movement was to persuade wealthy landowners to voluntarily give some percentage of their land to the landless people.

Critical Evaluation : 

This is as given below :

1. Till today, the records related to land are incomplete in many states. 

2. This outlook of the government was not successful in context to land reforms. 

3. Unwanted lawsuits gained strength. 

4. This programme was not coordinated properly. 

5. Till today, high rate of land revenue is been raised in some areas.

Suggestions to improve land reform programme : 

1. Development of Irrigation facilities. 

2. Stopping people from using other’s land. 

3. Lawful suits must be field against the people’s performing wrong transferring and wrong allocation. 

4. Former soldiers should be given priority while distributing land in bordering areas. 

5. Minimum wages of farmers should be fixed in agriculture. 

6. Land should be provided to the landless in the villages. 

7. Government should itself identify the persons who are engaged in wrongful nomination of property. 

8. Strict action should be taken against those who are depriving the farmers from the land.

The land revenue collection policies adopted by the British Government such as Zamindari, Ryotwari and Mahalwari systems forced the farmers toward poverty, and his became the reason for the backwardness of the agricultural sector.

Tenant farming is an agricultural production system in which landowners contribute their land and often a measure of operating capital and management and lease their land to the tenants.

The institutes that provide financial help to the poor people of the village areas are called micro finance Institutions. Initially, this scheme was started in Bangladesh. This financial help is being provided to Non-Governmental Institutions and Self Help Groups. With this, the finance is able to reach the “roots” of villages.

65% of India’s population is dependent on agriculture. Importance of agriculture in Indian economy is as follows:

• Importance of Agriculture in National Income : The data for National income is provided by the Central Statistical Organization. According to the Central Statistical Organization, the contribution of agriculture in gross domestic product was 56.6 per cent in 1950-51, which decreased to 15.2 per cent during the eleventh five year plan. The contribution of agriculture in National Income is gradually decreasing. This is an indicator of a developing economy. 
• Contribution of Agriculture in Employment : Almost 65% of India’s working population is directly or indirectly dependent on agriculture. The major means of livelihood for most of the population is agriculture. As there are more employment opportunities in agriculture and its allied activities, such as- fish farming, poultry, animal husbandry, etc. most part of the population is dependent on it. 
• Importance of Agriculture in Industrial Development : Agriculture has been important in India also because of industrial development. Our major industries are supplied raw materials from agriculture, i.e. tea industry, cotton textile industry, jute industry, sugar industry, floriculture and horticulture industry are directly dependent on agriculture.
• Importance of Agriculture in Foreign trade : Agricultural products have been the major items of Indian exports, i.e., tea, tobacco, hot spices, dry fruits, oil seeds, etc. This earns us foreign currency and foreign exchange reserves increase.
• Importance of Agriculture in Economic Planning- Agriculture is the main basis of transportation system, since mostly, agricultural products are transported by rail and road transport. In addition to this, when agricultural yield is good, the purchasing power of farmers increases which make them demand for industrial products, and as a result, the progress of industries is encouraged.

Land Development Bank : It provides services such as accepting deposits, providing business loans, and offering basic investment products. The main objective of the LDBs is to promote the development of land, agriculture and increase the agricultural production.

Agricultural Development without Pollution or Second Green Revolution- Using pollution free resources in agricultural development or using eco-friendly technology is known as the second green revolution. Former President of India, APJ Abdul Kalam, advocated the adoption of second green revolution. 

Following steps have been taken under this :

1. Use of bio- Fertilizers instead of chemical fertilizers. 

2. Use of bio- pesticides instead of chemical pesticides. 

3. Adopting balanced and appropriate patterns of water conservation and crops.

The Kisan Credit Card (KCC) programme was launched by the NDA government in 1998. With this scheme, the government aimed to fulfill timely and short-term credit needs of the farmers of India during the planting and harvesting season. It was also introduced to reduce the dependence of Indian farmers on the informal banking sector like moneylenders. Kisan Credit Cards are offered by cooperative banks, public sector banks, and regional rural banks. They can be availed by any farmer in India.

The RIDF was set up by the Government in 1995-96 for financing ongoing rural infrastructure projects. The Fund is maintained by the National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD). In 2015-16 under RIDF-XIX, the assistance of Rs 25000 crore was provided. It provides loans for various activities like-watershed facility and for the construction of village roads and bridges.

These provide financial assistance to the structural organizations by collecting the resources and human manpower and for their development. Its loans and grants are advanced to State Governments for financing primary and secondary level cooperative societies and direct to the national level and other societies having objectives extending beyond one State. Now, the corporation can also go in for direct funding of projects under its various schemes of assistance on fulfillment of stipulated conditions.

The objectives behind protection of rights of tenants are:

1. To stop the interference of tenants. 

2. To give the farmers the ownership of land. 

3. While giving back the ownership rights to the farmers, leaving some part of land for tenants.

The institutional finance facility gradually developed after independence. The contribution of institutional finance increased to 60% in 2013 since 1951. In order to increase institutional agricultural finance, Reserve Bank of India set up an advisory committee on the flow of credit to agriculture and related activities from the banking system under the chairmanship of Prof. B.S. Vyas. The committee submitted its report in 2004 with its 99 suggestions, out of which 32 suggestions were accepted by the Reserve Bank. The establishment of Cooperative Credit Institutes began in India in 1904. Institutional sources include- Cooperative Societies, Land Development Banks, Regional Rural banks, NABARD.

Agricultural scientist Dr. M.S. Swaminathan developed new wheat varieties of Sharbati Sona and Pusa Larma while removing the faults in the seeds of Mexican wheat.

Due to the colonial policies initiated by the British Government, development of agricultural sector did not take place and India was made the exporter of raw materials and the importer of goods produced in England.

Use of irrigation, fertilizers, high yielding seeds and pesticides in agriculture.

The projects where agriculture command area is less than 2000 hectares are called small irrigation projects.

Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh.

During 1950-51, Irrigation potential was 2.26 crore hectares, that increased to 11.32 crore hectares in 2011-12.

In the states of south India, such as Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Karnataka etc.

3.1 per cent .

Correct Answer is: (c) Eleventh

(a) 2-3 per cent

National Food Security Mission was initiated in the eleventh five year plan in order to increase the agricultural productivity.

Correct Answer is: (d) Rice

(b) Processing of fertilizers

With the continuous and rapidly growing burden of population on agricultural sector, even today, the production of agriculture on is low, and even today, 3/4th of the population is still dependent upon agriculture and its allied activities in rural regions.

65% of India’s population is dependent on agriculture.

Consolidation implied providing farmland at one place to the farmer instead of fields scattered around places in the village. The laws implemented by the government under land reforms could achieve partial success only. The Zamindars took advantage of the flaws in the laws and declared themselves to be farmers and challenged land reforms in court, and taking advantage of the delay in their implementation, got land leases issued in the name of their relatives. These reforms could not be equally implemented in all the regions of the country.

Knowledge Agriculture.