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Primary productivity depends upon the plant species of an area, their photosynthetic capacity, availability of nutrients, solar radiation, precipitation, soil type, topographic factors (altitude, latitude and direction), and other environmental factors.

Primary productivity:-

It is the rate of synthesis of biomass by producers per unit time per unit area through, the process of photosynthesis.

Factors:-

It depends up on sunlight, temperature moisture, nutrients and photosynthesis efficiency of producers.

(1) Sunlight:-

In tropical regions maximum sunlight is available. It reduces towards the pole. Therefore more photosynthesis and high productivity occurs in tropics.

(2) Temperature:-

Temperate forest have lesser productivity as compared to tropical forest due to cold climate during winter. Alpine and arctic regions have very low productivity because of low temperature almost through out the year.

(3) Moisture:-

Good rain and humidity increase productivity of the ecosystem with the fall in availability of water the productivity decreases.

(4) Nutrients:-

A regular availability of nutrients is required for sustaining plant growth and hence the productivity of an ecosystem.Coral reefs and esturies are highly productive as the nutrient supply is rich.

5. Photosynthetic efficiency:-

Some plants are photosynthetically more efficient in trapping sunlight than others.

eg: Sugarcane.

1. pyramid of number 

2. pyramid of biomass 

3. pyramid of energy.

A graphical representation of energy flow at each successive trophic level in an ecosystem is called pyramids of energy. The bottom of the pyramid of energy is occupied by the producers. There is a gradual decrease in energy transfer at successive tropic levels from producers to the upper levels. Therefore, the pyramid of energy is always upright.

The development of a plant community in an area where an already developed community has been destroyed by natural causes is known as secondary succession. This type of succession takes less time to occur.

In a forest ecosystem the pyramid of number is spindle in shape, it is because the base (T₁ ) of the pyramid occupies large sized trees (Producer) which are lesser in number.

Herbivores (T₂ ) (Fruit eating birds, elephant and deer) occupying second trophic level, are more in number than the producers. In final trophic level (T₄ ), tertiary consumers (lion) are lesser in number than the secondary consumer (T₃ ) (fox and snake).

(b) Psammosere

(c) R explains A

The inter-locking pattern of a number of food chain form a web like arrangement called food web. It is the basic unit of an ecosystem, to maintain its stability in nature.

Flagship species

1. Buying and using only ecoffiendly products and recycle them.

2. Growing more trees. 

3. Choosing sustained farm products (vegetables, fruits and greens, etc.)

4. Reducing the use of natural resources. 

5. Recycling the waste and reduce the amount of waste you produce. 

6. Reducing consumption of water and electricity.

7. Reducing or eliminating the use of house-hold chemicals and pesticides. 

8. Maintaining your cars and vehicles properly to reduce carbon emission. 

9. Creating awareness and educate about ecosystem protection among your friends and family members and ask them to find out solution to minimise this problem.

1. The components of gaseous cycle are placed in atmosphere 

E.g: Oxygen in air 

2. whereas in sedimentary cycle, the components are present in/on Earth. 

E.g: Phosphorous in rocks.

Eltonian pyramid or Ecological pyramid is a graphic representation of the trophic structure and function at successive trophic levels of an ecosystem.

(b) A is right R is wrong

The pyramid of number in a parasite ecosystem is always inverted, because it starts with a single tree. Therefore there is gradual increase in the number of organisms in successive tropic levels from producer to tertiary consumers.

In a forest ecosystem the pyramid of number is spindle in shape, it is because the base (T₁ ) of the pyramid occupies large sized trees (Producer) which are lesser in number. Herbivores (T₂ ) (Fruit eating birds, elephant and deer) occupying second trophic level, are more in number than the producers. In final trophic level (T₄ ), .tertiary consumers (lion) are lesser in number than the secondary consumer (T₃ ) (fox and snake).

DNA, RNA, ATP and NADP.

(c) pyramid of number in a forest ecosystem

Difference Between Flora and Fauna

i. Productivity: Conversion of inorganic into organic material with the help of solar energy by the autotrophs. 

ii. Energy flow: Unidirectional movement of energy towards higher trophic level (and its dissipation and loss as heat to the environment). 

iii. Decomposition: Fragmentation, leaching, catabolism, humification, mineralization by bacteria, fungi and flagellates (abundant at the bottom of lake). 

iv. Nutrient cycling: Decomposition of dead matter to release the nutrients back to be re-used by the autotrophs.

Food chain in aquatic ecosystem (lake):

Phytoplanktons → Zooplanktons → Small fish → Big fish (Any other appropriate example).

Phytoplankton – hydric → Submerged plant stage → Submerged free floating plant stage → Reed swamp stage → Marsh – meadow stage → Scrub stage → Forest stage – Mesic

Pioneer species invade the area first. For example, lichen

Ecosystem management is a process that integrates ecological, socio economic and institutional factors into a comprehensive strategy in order to sustain and enhance the quality of the ecosystem to meet current and future needs

Ecosystem is damaged by disturbances from fire, flood, predation, infection and drought, etc. removing a great amount of biomass. However, ecosystem is endowed with the ability to resist the damage and recover quickly. This ability of ecosystem is called ecosystem resilience or ecosystem robustness.

Trophic level concerns with organisms associated with food chain.

Biotic and Abiotic components