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(C) a is true, b is false

(B) Tanning of leathers

Whenever pollen grains enter in our body they cause allergy due to the presence of nitrogenous substances. These allergens cause skin allergy and asthma. Ex: Parthenium.

(B) Brugaman

(A) Parathenium

The deep brown coloured carbon compounds used in tanning of leather are Tannins

(D) Platyhelminthes

(C) Nematoda

B) Platyhelminthes

Millions of microscopic thin tubular units in each kidney are Nephrons

B) Bowman’s capsule

1. nephridia 

2. cortex 

3. osmoregulation 

4. tubular

5. secondary metabolic 

6. malphigian tubule 

7. quinine 

8. Osmosis and filtration 

9. latex 

10. Dr. Charles Hufnagel

The dark coloured outer zone is called Cortex

C) A → C → B → D

Correct option is C) Water

(D) Pale colour

Major component present in urine in human beings is water.

Answer is (C) Urethra

B) Both a & b are true, b doesn’t explain a

The right kidney is placed slightly lower than the left kidney due to the presence of liver.

Tubular secretion does not take place in PCT

a. collects urine

1. Urine contains 96% of water, 2.5% of organic substances and 1.5% of inorganic solutes. 

2. Urine is acidic in the beginning of it’s formation. 

3. Gradually it becomes alkaline due to the decomposition of urea to form AMMONIA.

Angiotensinogen

In reptiles, uric acid is stored in cloaca.

b. Malpighian tubule

A) Both a & b are true, b explains a

d. nucleic acids

a. Bowman’s capsule, 

b. Descending limb, 

d. Ascending limb

A) Both a& b are true

d. Cells with brush border

Nicotine, Morphine, Cocaine.

1. In the descending loop of Henle reabsorption of water from the filtrate takes place. 

2. Ascending loop of Henle is impermeable to water and only ions diffuse out into the surrounding cells.

Resin secretes by a group of plants Gymnosperms.

Rubber is prepared from the latex of Hevea braziliensis.

Bio-diesel is obtained from the seeds of Jatropa.

Answer is (B) Jatropa

1. Heavy blood loss is called haemorrhage. In case of haemorrhage or severe dehydration, the osmoreceptors stimulate Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) secretion. 

2. ADH is important in regulating water balance through the kidneys. 

For detailed mechanism of reabsorption by ADH: 

Regulating water reabsorption through ADH:

Hypothalamus in the midbrain has special receptors called osmoreceptors which can detect change in osmolarity (measure of total number of dissolved particles per liter of solution) of blood.

If osmolarity of blood increases due to water loss from the body (after eating namkeen or due to sweating), osmoreceptors trigger release of Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) from neurohypophysis (posterior pituitary). ADH stimulates reabsorption of water from last part of DCT and entire collecting duct by increasing the permeability of cells.

This leads to reduction in urine volume and decrease in osmolarity of blood.

Once the osmolarity of blood comes to normal, activity of osmoreceptor cells decreases leading to decrease in ADH secretion. This is called negative feedback. In case of hemorrhage or severe dehydration too, osmoreceptors stimulate ADH secretion. ADH is important in regulating water balance through kidneys.

In absence of ADH, diuresis (dilution of urine) takes place and person tends to excrete large amount of dilute urine. This condition called as diabetes insipidus.

Another regulatory mechanism that must have been activated is RAAS. 

For detailed mechanism of electrolyte reabsorption: 

Electrolyte reabsorption through RAAS: Another regulatory mechanism is RAAS (Renin Angiotensin Aldosterone System) by Juxta Glomerular Apparatus (JGA). 

Whenever blood supply (due to change in blood pressure or blood volume) to afferent arteriole decreases (e.g. low BP/dehydration), JGA cells release Renin. Renin converts angiotensinogen secreted by hepatocytes in liver to Angiotensin I. ‘Angiotensin-converting enzyme’ further modifies Angiotensin I to Angiotensin II, the active form of hormone. It stimulates adrenal cortex to release another hormone called aldosterone that stimulates DCT and collecting ducts to reabsorb more Na⁺ and water, thereby increasing blood volume and pressure.

Testing the urine is known as urinalysis. 

It generally has three parts: 

1. Visual examination: Check sample colour and clearness. 

2. Dipstick examination: Checks for abnormal amounts of glucose, protein, etc. 

3. Microscopic examination: Check for presence of RBCs. WBCs, bacteria, crystals, etc. 

4. Apart from routine urine examination, specific tests may also be done. 

They are as follows: 

• BUN (Blood Urea Nitrogen) 

Test: It measures the amount of nitrogen in blood and evaluates kidney function.

• Urease Test/ Urea Nitrogen Test: It is done to check the amount of urea in urine sample. 
• Urine albumin to creatine ratio (UACR) test: Estimates the amount of albumin in urine

1. Plasma creatinine is produced from catabolism of creatinine phosphate during skeletal muscle contraction. 

2. It provides a ready source of high energy phosphate. 

3. Normally blood creatinine levels remain steady because the rate of production matches its excretion in urine. 

4. Hence, plasma creatinine is used as an index of kidney function and its level above normal is an indication of poor renal function.

1. Generally, excess water containing wastes is lost from the body in the time of urine. sweat and faeces. 

2. During summer when the surrounding temperature is high. we also lose a considerable amount of water in the form of sweat. 

Thus, the kidneys retain water for maintaining the concentration of body fluids and reduce the amount of water lost through urine.

i. Creatinine: 

• Plasma creatinine is produced from catabolism of creatinine phosphate during skeletal muscle contraction. 
• It provides a ready source of high energy phosphate.

ii. Observations and Opinion:

Report A indicates a value of creatinine which is higher than the normal range. This would indicate impaired kidney function. Report B indicates high fasting blood sugar and detection of sugar in the blood is known as glucosuria. High fasting blood sugar (>126 mg/dL) is usually indicative of diabetes.

iii. Creatinine used as an index of kidney function: 

• Normally blood creatinine levels remain steady because the rate of production matches his excretion in urine. 
• Hence, plasma creatinine is used as an index of kidney function and its level above normal is an indication of poor renal function.

Kidneys are located in abdomen. Kidneys are not surrounded by peritoneum instead they are located posterior to it. Thus, kidneys are called retroperitoneal.

1. Raw onion and garlic contain volatile sulphur-containing compounds. 

2. Sulphur-containing compounds have a distinctive odour which remain in the mouth after consumption of onion and garlic. 

3. Also, volatile compounds (like certain sulphur containing compounds) in foodstuffs are generally excreted through the lungs and may result in bad breath.

1. Ammonia formed during the breakdown of amino acids is converted into urea in the liver of ureotelic animals. 

2. This conversion takes place by the help of the ornithine / urea cycle. 

3. 3 ATP molecules are used to produce one molecule of urea using the ornithine/ urea cycle. Since, the liver contains carrier molecules and enzymes necessary for urea cycle, it plays a major role in urea production.

1. To generate heat, endotherms convert the food that they eat into energy through a process called metabolism. Hence, they consume more food in order to meet their energy requirements. 

2. Also, carnivorous diet contains more proteins than herbivores. 

3. Consumption of high protein or more food containing proteins can result in production of large amount of nitrogenous waste. 

4. These animals would also require more energy to eliminate the high levels of nitrogenous wastes which build up when animal protein is digested.

1. I always eat the home cooked meals. 

2. I should adapt to take low salt diet. 

3. I eat the food that are lower in protein which can help to decrease the levels of protein, avoid eating cakes, pies, cookies, candies and pastries (junk foods), take fruits containing simple carbohydrates. 

4. I would like to drink sufficient water nearly 5-6 litres per day. 

5. I never forget drinking more water after meals. 

6. I avoid taking high phosphorus foods like cheese, cola, soft drinks, butter but I replace them with butter milk, sharbat etc.

7. I eat low potassium levels fruits like apples, watermelon, cucumber, grapes, cherries, carrots, etc. because high potassium levels cause irregular heart beats. 

8. I avoid high sodium contents like potato chips, bacon (cured meat from pig) cheese, meat, canned vegetables, caned soups frozen dinners and table salt, which damage kidneys.

1. To generate heat. endotherms convert the food that they eat into energy through a process called metabolism. Hence, they consume more told in order to meet their energy requirements. 

2. Also, carnivorous diet contains more proteins than herbivores. 

3. Consumption of high protein or more food containing proteins can result in production of large amount of nitrogenous waste 

4. These animals would also require more energy to eliminate the high levels of nitrogenous wastes which build up when animal protein is digested.

Slogans about organ donation : 

1. Organ donation saves lives.

2. Give a life, gift of life. 

3. Donate organs today for better tomorrow. 

4. The measure of a life, after all is not its duration but its donation. 

5. Change your thoughts and you change your world. 

6. Organ donation is icky (disagreeable) but recycle yourself is sticky. 

What you have seen? 

1. Have a heart, save a life. 

2. The gift of life pass it on. 

3. Organ donation is a gift for life.

1. Drink plenty of water. 

2. Eat low salt diet that saves kidney life. 

3. Drink more fruit juices.