Explore topic-wise InterviewSolutions in Current Affairs.

Population distribution refers to the way in which people are spread out across the earth’s surface.

Local communities, government and civic organisations all came together not just to conserve the remaining mangroves, but also to restore it.

• Saplings of native species of plants and trees are being grown, planted and cared for.
• Live colonies of coral from the Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve are being transplanted to Palk Bay. The existing mangroves and the region are being mapped and the way land is used around the mangrove is being studied. 
• The local communities are actively involved in the conservation and restoration of the mangroves. Education and awareness programmes about mangrove ecosystem are being undertaken.

Noble savage.

This is Rousseau’s statement.

1. The Declaration of the Right of Man in France was a landmark decision in the history of France.

2. The constitution began with a declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. Rights such as the right to life, freedom of speech, freedom of opinion, equality before law, were established as ‘natural and inalienable’ rights. That is, they belonged to each human being by birth and could not be taken away

3. It was the duty of the state to protect each citizen's natural rights. The declaration of the Right of Man and Citizens influenced revolutionary movements elsewhere too.

1. Louis XVI finally accorded recognition to the National Assembly and accepted theprinciple that his powers would be checked by a constitution.

2. On 4 August 1789, the Assembly passed a decree abolishing the feudal system of obligations and taxes. Members of the clergy too were forced to give up their privileges

3. Tithes were abolished and lands owned by the church were confiscated. As a result, the government acquired assets worth at least 2, billion lives.

(i) The Jacobin government in France was based on extreme measures. The period from 1793-1794 is referred to as the reign of terror. Robespierre followed a policy of severe Control and punishment.

(ii) All those he saw as being ‘enemies’ of the republic nobles and clergy, members of other political parties, even members of his own party who did not agree with his methods–were arrested, imprisoned and guillotined. This led to chaos and resentment among the people.

(iii) Robespierre’s government ordered shutting down of churches and converting church buildings into barricades or offices. Thus the clergy turned against the Jacobin regime and hastened its fall.

(iv) Robespierre pursued his policies so relentlessly that even his supporters turned against him. They began to demand moderation and a middle path. Finally, he himself was tried by a court in July 1794, arrested and guillotined.

Mirabeau And Abbe Sieyes

Rapid increase in the demand for food grains.

1. The people who comprised the Third Estate were big businessmen, merchants, lawyers, peasants, artisans, small peasants, landless labour and servants. 

2. These were 95 percent of the population. They had to pay taxes to the state. Taxes included taille, tithes and a number of indirect taxes.

All the three Estates should have one vote.

Drafting a Constitution for France which limited the king’s power.

1. The population of France was on the rise. It rose from 23 million in 1715 to 28 million in 1789. This led to increase in the demand for food grains. 

2. The production of food grains could not keep pace with the demand and the price of bread which was the staple diet of the majority rose rapidly. 

3. The wages also did not keep pace with the rise in prices. The gap between the rich and the poor widened. This led to the subsistence crisis.

1. National Assembly was busy at Versailles drafting a constitution; the rest of France was seething with turmoil. 

2. A severe winter had meant a bad harvest, the price of bread rose. Often bakers exploited the situation and hoarded supplies. 

3. After spending hours in long queues at the bakery, crowds of angry women stormed into the shops. 

4. At the same time, the king ordered troops to move into Paris. On 14 July, the agitated crowd stormed and destroyed Bastille.

Taille was directly paid to the state by the Third Estate.

Lawyers, Administrative officials, Middle class

A political body

Two Treatises on Government’ book was written by John Lock.

Louis XVI of Bourbon dynasty, ascended the throne in 1774. He was married to Austrian princess Marie Antoinette. 

1. French society was divided into 3 estates by Louis XVI.

2. Taxes were increased by 10%.

3. Taxes were only paid by 3rd estate.

4. Most of the land were given to church,nobles and clergy.

5. 3rd estate were treated as inferior and 1st & 2nd estate were treated as superior.

France was a full-fledged territorial state in 1789 under the rule of an absolute monarch.

(i) French Revolution led to the transfer of sovereignty from the monarchy to a body of French citizens.

(ii) The revolution proclaimed that it was the people who would henceforth constitute the nation and Sharpe its destiny. So, the French revolutionaries introduced various measures and practices that could create a sense of collective identity amongst the French people. 

Only men above 25 years of age and who paid taxes equal to at least 3 days of a labourer’s wage.

Elected indirectly.

Correct option is C) Electricity

A) Tube wells

C) Persian wheels

1. It is very important to increase the area under irrigation because it is not wise to depend on monsoon rains which were uncertain and erratic. 

2. To increase production we have to bring more area under irrigation. 

3. It helps us to improve the farming pattern or adopt modern farming methods in those areas.

1. The constitution began with a Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizens. 

2. Rights such as the right to life, freedom of speech, freedom of opinion, equality before law were established as ‘natural and inalienable rights’, i.e., they belonged to each human being by birth and could not be taken away. 

3. It was the duty of the state to protect each citizen’s natural right.

The constitution of 1791 vested the power to make laws in the National Assembly, which was indirectly elected. That is,

1. Citizens voted for a group of electors, who in turn chose the Assembly. Not all citizens, however, had the right to vote.

2. Only men above 25 years of age who paid taxes equal to at least 3 days of a labourer’s wage were given the status of active citizens, that is, they were entitled to vote.

3. The remaining men and all women were classed as passive citizens.

4. To qualify as an elector and then as a member of the Assembly, a man had to belong to the highest bracket of taxpayers.

1. The representatives of the Third Estate assembled at Versailles on 20Juneand declared themselves a National Assembly. 

2. The Bastille Day is celebrated on 14th July every year because on this day the unruly Paris mob stormed and attacked the prison of Bastille which was considered a symbol of terror and despotism.

C) Banks and own savings

1. Jean Jacques Rousseau – a French Swiss philosopher. His main idea was – man is naturally good and that society of civilisation makes man anxious and unhappy. 

2. Mirabeau – he brought about a journal and delivered powerful speeches to the crowds at Versailles. 

3. Voltaire – A famous French writer. He exposed the evils prevailing in the Church and administration. The numbers of the first two estates were the 

(i) Clergy and 

(ii) Nobility respectively.

Correct option: (b) steeper

(a) On July 14, 1789, a mob of Paris stormed the fortress – the prison of Bastille – considered a symbol of oppression and despotism. The Swiss guards were killed and prisoners set free. The mob stole arms and ammunition. To this day, France celebrates ‘Bastille Day’ on 14th July every year. 

(b) In 1790, the Civil Constitution nationalised the Church. The clergy or group of persons who enjoyed special powers in the Church were also forced to relinquish power. Tithes were abolished and lands owned by the Church were confiscated.

The period from 1793 to 1794 is referred to as the ‘Reign of Terror’.

1. Maximilian Robespierre, leader of the Jacobins, followed the policy of severe control and punishment.

2. All those who saw as enemies of the Republic — ex-nobles, clergy, political opponents — were arrested, tried and guillotined if found guilty.

3. He issued laws placing a maximum ceiling on wages and prices.

4. Meat and bread were rationed.

5. Use of expensive white flour was forbidden.

Robespierre followed his policies so relentlessly that even his supporters began to demand moderation. Finally, he was convicted, arrested and guillotined in July 1794.

Features of Partnership Firm:

• Meaning: The business organization, which is owned, managed, and controlled by two or more persons under Partnership Act, 1932 is called a partnership firm.
• Registration: As per Partnership Act, 1932, registration is not compulsory. But, registration has been made compulsory in the state of Maharashtra.
• A number of members: The minimum number of members is 2 partners and a maximum of 50 partners for general business.
• Capital: The capital of a partnership firm is contributed by all the partners.
• Liability: In a partnership firm, the liability of partners is unlimited and is joint and several. The personal property of partners can be used to pay off the liabilities and debts of the partnership firm.
• Legal status: Partners of partnership firm enter into business with an agreement which is made as per Partnership Act, 1932. But, such firms do not enjoy separate legal statuses.
• Transfer of shares: In a partnership firm, partners cannot transfer their shares without the permission of other partners.
• Management: The business of a partnership firm is conducted, managed and controlled by all the partners. They are the joint owners and joint managers of a firm.
• No separation of ownership and management: As per the Partnership Act, 1932 all partners of the firm are owners, and as such it is the responsibility of all the partners to manage the business. So there is no separation of ownership and management.
• Profit-sharing: Being an owner of a firm, all the partners share profits and losses as per the ratio which is mentioned in the partnership deed.

A device consisting of two poles and a blade with which a person was beheaded.

It is an attempt by a large number of people to change the government of a country, especially by violent action.

1. The Third Estate comprising the common men benefitted from the Revolution. The clergy and nobility had to relinquish power.

2. Their land was confiscated. Their privileges were finished. The people of lower middle class were also benefitted.

3. Position of artisans and workers improved.

4. Clergy, feudal lords, nobles and even women were disappointed. The revolution did not bring real equality as everyone was not given the right to vote. Finally, women got it in 1946.

The economic results of the first world war were as follows : 

1.Economic Destruction : This war ended on 11 November 1918. In this war, 1,00,000 crore pounds were spent directly and the indirect loss was uncountable. 

2. Mass Destruction : In this 4 years war, 80 Lakh people died and 2 crore people were wounded. It proved that this war was a devastating war. Seven thousand people died every day in this period due to massacre, hunger, disease and France was largely destroyed. 

3. War Loan : In 1914, the public debt of both parties was 8 thousand crores and in 1918 it increased by 5 times to 40 thousand crores. Overall property worth 13 thousand 200 crore was destroyed in the war. With the increase in the rate of labour, production decreased. The price of the currency started decreasing and the risk in the trade business grew manifold.

4. The Destruction of Trade : Now every nation was trying to buy the least goods from other countries and sell more goods to them. After the war, the United States, Japan and Latin countries entered those markets which were previously in the hands of Britain and Germany. America became the world’s leading lender. 

5. Inflation of Money : All states issued huge amount of paper currency to repay loans to meet their increased expenditure. This inflation wiped away savings and resulted in an economic crisis.

Condition of farmers before Russian Revolution : 

• In spite of being an agricultural country the condition of Russian farmers was miserable. 
• Big landlords had 1800 lac acres of land while more than one million farmers had only 1900 lac acres land.
• One third of the farmer were landless. These landless farmers worked on the fields of landlords. 
• Farmers had to pay many types of taxes due to which their financial condition became more miserable. 
• No changes occurred in the miserable condition of farmers by the law made for peasants. 
• Farmers demanded for land tax reduction and facilities which was rejected. 
• A conference of farmers’ representatives was held in Moscow in 1905. Then Russian Farmer’s Union was established. 
• Farmers had to be given right to separate his land from ‘Commune’ by the law of 1906. 
• But landless farmers did not get any profit by this law. As a result farmers became opponents of the administration.

Condition of Workers before Russian revolution : 

• Due to industrilization industries developed in Russia. 
• Landless farmers reached to get employment at the urban centres. 
• Capitalists and Industrialists exploited these farmers greatly. 
• Due to Harsh survival conditions and low wages the condition of workers became worse. 
• After 1885, some laws were made for workers but the workers did not get any profit. 
• The policies of administration were also in favour of industrialists. 
• By taking advantage of this situation Socialist party propagated socialist principles among workers. 
• From 1902-03 the strikes of workers began. 
• Workers wanted to establish the rule of proletariat class and remove capitalism and Czarist rule. 
• From here Russian revolution began to gain momentum and Czar’s rule came to end.

The social results of the first world war were as follows : 

1. The solution to solve the problem of Minorities : In the Paris conference, the problem arose how to protect the interests of permanent minorities in foreign countries. Mainly this problem arose in Poland, Czechoslovakia as well as in Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria and Turkey. Paris peace conference forced Poland and Czechoslovakia to give guarantee to protect the minorities’ language and culture. But Poland, Czechoslovakia, Romania, Greece, Jugoslavia and Turkey were against this type of guarantee. 

2. Reform in the condition of women : Women’s welfare was sidelined during the 4th year of war. In addition to the traditional roles of women, society started neglecting them. Women started working in factories, shops and they were also doing what men used to do.

3.Equality of the breeds : The Europeans had strong sense of superiority and racism in Europe. These people considered black, grey, yellow people of Asia and Africa as inferior to themselves. But when the soldiers of India, Japan and Africa were sent to Europe due to the wars, they showed as much courage as the white soldiers. 

4. Development of world Organization : Many world organizations were established for dismantling the social, political and economical problems due to the first world war. International labour and National Unions were established to solve the welfare and political problems of the workers. This led to the development of international feeling. This war had serious consequences which could not be compensated.

The treaties performed in Paris Peace Conference were as follows : 

1. St Germain treaty : By disintegrating the Empire of Austo-Hungary, Allied nations made the treaty of St. German with Austria. By this Italy got South Tirol, Trento, Istria and Dalmatia (coastal areas) from Austria. 

2. Treaty of Triyano : Allied nations made the treaty of Triyano with Hungary. Hungary left its right on the ‘Magyar’ people. Hungary’s army was reduced to 35 thousand and its navy was also dissolved. 

3. Treaty of Neuli : Allied nations performed the ‘treaty of Neuli’ with Bulgaria. Bulgaria had to return all the conqured area in World War-I and Balkan wars. Its army was reduced to 33 thousand and the amount of 5 Lakh dollars should be paid as compensation. 

4. Treaty of Sebre and Lusan : Turkey also fought in support of Germany. So allied nations performed the treaty of Sebre with Turkey. Turkey had to give Dodekniz island and Rodes region to Italy. Turkey army was reduced upto 50 thousand. But due to the Tarun Turk movement in Turkey in 1923, there was the treaty of Lusan performed and according to it Turkey received its lost landscape.

5. Treaty of Versailles : Allied nations made the treaty of Versailles with Germany. According to it:

• Germany had to give Alsace and Lorraine region to France. 
• For 15 years the harnessing of the ‘Sir Canyon’ of Germany filled with minerals was given to France. 
• On the basis of referendum German controlled Schleswig was given to Denmark. 
• Independent Poland was formed by joining the Polish regions of Germany, Austria and Russia. 
• Now allied nations took away the rights over all colonies of Germany. 
• Compulsory military service in Germany was ended. 
• The number of German soldiers and officers of Germany was limited to one Lakh and its air force was grounded. 
• (h) The fortification of East part of Rhine river by Germany was prohibited. 
• Many of Germany’s powers were also limited and an additional sum of 5 billion dollars was to be given by Germany as compensation in 1921. 
• Germany had to take responsibility of World War-I.

The condition of European countries before the first world war was the following : 

1. England : At this time England was the most prosperous nation in Europe. Its navy was very strong and powerful. England’s colonial empire had been established in most parts of the world. At this time England was taking interest in increasing its economic and imperialistic interests. In the East, England had established its colonial Empire in India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Malaya and Africa. Persia, Afganistan, Tibet, Neptal and Middle east were also influenced by England. 

2. Germany : Before the World War-I Germany had the most powerful land forces in Europe. It had become an economically prosperous nation but it had less colonies. So it considered England as its great rival. In the leadership of Emperior Willian-II Germany which was situated in centre of Europe, wanted to become the supreme power of Europe. 

3. Russia : In terms of area Russia was the largest country in the world. It was under the rule of Czar. At this time Russia was taking interest in Balkan region where a great number of Slav people lived. Russia wanted to destroy the Ottoman Empire and establish a great Slav state there. In this Austria was its greatest opponent. 

4. France : By getting Alsace and Lorraine areas from Germany, France wanted to get the dignity of the past. France has established its colony in Indo-China, Indonesia and Africa. 

5. Austria : In Europe, Austria was engaged in conflict in Balkan region with Russia and Serbia. In 1908-09 CE, Austria annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina into its Empire. Due to this its relation with Russia, Serbia and Italy became worse.

The world politics came to a turning point. Many countries of Europe became engaged in the competition of colonialism and industrialization. Powerful countries divided the small states and began to fulfil their interests. This policy of nations created unrest and anarchy in Europe. 

After 1900 CE the major events were as following :

• Russo-Japanese War of 1904-05 CE : In Russo-Japanese war of 1904-5, Russia was defeated. This war badly affected the foreign policy and economic politics of Russia. Due to the defeat of Russia, Germany challenged France in Morocco and created a serious situation in the international region. 
• Suppression of the revolt of Phage : To supress the revolt of Phage in the year 1911, France sent its troops to protect the life of the European people. So Germany opposed it and sent its warship to Agadir fort. Due to this the situation of international conflict was created. 
• Annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria : In 1908-09 Austria brought Bosnia and Herzeygovina into the Empire and this created a serious crisis. As a result of this Austria’s relations with Russia and Italy worsened.| 
• Balkan wars : The Balkan wars of the year 1912-13 also made the international environment extremely stressful. The race of militarism and armanent due to these wars speaded up. 
• Invasion on Serbia by Austria : On 28 July 1914 CE Austria invaded Serbia and along with it the first World War started which had far reaching results. Thus the above events created an atmosphere of anarchy and tension in the whole world which emerged in the form of the first World War.

Stalin was born in 1879 at Gori village in a Tannery family. His father wanted him to become a priest of Church but he was interested in Marxism. And later, he joined Democratic party. In 1902-03 century, he was arrested 6 times in, but escapes 5 times from there where he was sent to Siberia. He was General secretary of the party. After the death of Lenin in January 1924, Stalin got success in power struggle between him and Trotsky

He died on 6th March 1953 CE. During his long tenure as the leader of the Soviet Union, the Soviet Union made a lot of progress and equalled the US, in the era of two superpowers.

During the first world war India was a vast and very important colony of England. India did not have direct relation with the first World War but England included India when it started. For India, this war was only for the support of England. From the declaration of the first World War in 1914 CE, a great change occurred in the political atmosphere of the country. In the contemporary period there were two groupsradicals and moderates in the political institution Congress of India. Both groups had different ideology regarding the policies of British government.

• When England’s prime minister described Germany’s defeat in the war as essential for the protection of democracy and sought help from India, the members of moderate group decided to help England mentally, physically and financially. 
• Gandhiji emerged as an ally of the British Government in Indian politics. They felt that the British were fighting to protect the higher principles in this World War. 
• Tilak and Annie Besant and revolutionaries assessed that the Britishers were currently seeking help from Indians only because of their need. After the war, they would continue their oppressive policies again. India’s good will not happen without any violent movement. 
• A large number of soldiers were recruited in India during World War-I. In addition to weapons, ammunitions and war materials, large quantities of wheat rice, tea, cotton, jute, rubber, coal, iron and steel were sent. India spent 10 crore pounds per year for this war and also spent 30 crore of pounds on its army.

The British government expressed the hope that Indians will be given more facilities after this war. But after the war, it was evident from the activities of the British that Tilak’s assessment was correct. The British tricked the Indians and contrary to expectations famine, epidemic, economic exploitation, press and other oppressive policies continued.

In 1919 Paris peace conference, many treaties were made between allied nations and defeated nations in which the treaty of Versailles was very important. This treaty was made between Germany and allied nations. Germany became economically weak and militarily decimated by this treaty. 

The harsh provisions of this treaty hit the existence of Germany hard in the following ways :

• Germany had to give Alsace and Lorraine provinces to France. 
• After 15 years of harnessing the ‘Sir Canyon’, Germany gave this mineral-rich region to France. 
• Referendum was taken in German territory ‘Schelswig’. According to that Schelswig was given to Denmark. 
• Germany had to leave Danzig harbour under League of Nations’ control and also gave its all the rights to allied nations. 
• Compulsory military service in Germany ended and it was prohibited from doing fortification. Its air force was grounded. 
• Germany’s powers were greatly limited and they were ordered to pay an additional sum of 5 billion dollars to be given as compensation in 1921. 
• Germany had to take the responsibility of the destruction in first World War. Thus the treaty of Versailles was very insulting in which Germany lost its all honour and dignity. After taking over its economic resources Germany was bound to repay the amount of indemenity which was inappropriate. But it cannot be denied that Germany was itself responsible for this situation.

(i). Red Army : Bolshevik party organised a strong army to face foreign armies and chieftains of Czar Nicholas-II which was known as Red Army. Later on this army became stronger under the leadership of Trotosky and played an important role to defeat White army and to force changes in the policies of allied powers. 

(ii). White Army : The army against the Bolsheviks in Russia was known as White Army. These white armies were organised to remove the Bolshevik government by the chieftains of Czar Nicholas-II with the cooperation of Allied powers. 

(iii). Cheka : In Russia-Bolsheviks established a secret court to suppress the revolutionaries, which was known as Cheka. Feliks Kerensky was the president of this court. In his leadership thousands of revolutionaries were killed. Cheka destroyed their opponents completely with terror and merciless acts.

Correct option is (b) 1895 A.D.

Trotsky was the head of Petrograd revolutionary Soviet council. Later on he became the foreign minister of Bolshevik government. He led Red Army while facing foreign armies. As a result Bolshavik government got victory. In 1924 after the death of Lenin, conflict was created between Trotsky and Stalin to get the highest position in the government in which Stalin got success. Trotsky was driven out from the party in 1927 CE. Then Trotsky settled in Constantinople where he wrote his autobiography in which he presented accounts of Bolshevik Revolution and criticised Stalinism.