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With the efficient leadership and strong organisation of Lenin, Bolshevik party became successful in taking control of Russia on 7 November 1917 CE. On 8 November 1917 CE under the leadership of Lenin, a new government was formed. This new Bolshevik government had to face many types of challenges along with the opposition of political parties which are the following :

• The people who lost their lands, became unsatisfied with the Bolshevik government. 
• After the treaty between Bolshevik government and Germany, Allied powers favoured Russian revolutionaries and created a crisis for Lenin’s government. 
• Allied powers formed white government in different fields with the co-operation of opponents of Bolsheviks. 
• Russian people had to face the terror of Red Army formed by Bolsheviks and white army by hostile commanders. But at last Lenin conquered all the challenges by his Bolshevik policy.

Before the Russian Revolution there was economic inequality in Russia. Elite group was too much prosperous while the proletariat had no rights and their economic condition was also miserable. As a result of revolution many economic reforms were done in Russia which reduced economic inequality. 

The reforms were as follows :

• Land was acquired from the feudals and redistributed to the people by the government. 
• Industries were nationalized. 
• Private business became limited and importance was given to collective enterprise, and production. 
• Control was established on odd distribution of income. 
• Efforts were made for the betterment in working condition and living conditions of workers and farmers.

The Russian Empire was spread out on 1/6 part of the world’s land area. Along with the expansion in Asia and Europe the borders of North America also touched Russian Empire. Due to its vastness Russia had relations with many countries of Asia and Europe. 

The main objectives of Russian foreign policy were as follows :

• The security of borders. 
• Uninterrupted traffic in the Black Sea. 
• To get a reasonable territory of states which were removed from the map. 
• To control the ambitions of Britain in Middle East. 
• To set up its own domination by stopping expansion of Japanese Empire in East Asia.

During the first World War British government gave the promise of constitutional reforms for India in exchange of Indian support in the World War. But after the war British started to suppress Indians and adopted oppressive policies. 

British adopted the following diplomatic policies againt Indians :

• By Rowlatt Act England suppressed the fundamental rights of Indians. 
• Harsh laws were imposed on Indian Press. 
• There was no provision of self rule to Indians in Indian government act of 1919 CE. 
• In Turkey the Khalifa was deposed and Indian Muslims started Khilafat movement against it. 
• British government tricked the Indians and contrary to their assurances they pursued policies which resulted in famines, epidemics and other economic exploitation.

(a) Felisk Kerzinski

To suppress the revolutionary activities against British government, British parliament passed Rowlatt act in 1919 CE. By this law England wanted to take away the fundamental rights of Indians. By this law British government got the right to keep anyone in the prison for two years without any trial. Indians gave it the name of Black Law and opposed it by processions and strikes.

In 1919 a peace conference was organised in Paris to establish permanent peace at the end of World War-I. In this conference many treaties were performed among allied powers and defeated nations which are as follows :

• The treaty of Saint Germain with Austria was dissolved by the dissolution of Austro-Hungarian Empire. By this, Italy received South Tirol, Trento, Istria and Dalmatia from Austria. 
• The treaty of Triyano was made with Hungary in which Hungary had to forgo its right on the ‘Magyar’ people. Hungary’s army was reduced to 35 thousand and its navy was also dissolved. 
• Nely treaty was performed with Bulgaria in which it had to return all the regions it had won in the Balkan wars. 
• The treaty of Sabre was made with Turkey according to which Dardanelles island and Rhodes region had to be given to Italy. 
• In all the treaties in Peace conference, the treaty of Versailles with Germany was the most important. On 28 June 1919 CE, Germany had to sign an offensive treaty in which Germany had to give up its most important industrial regions to France.

In terms of area Russia was the largest state of Europe.

Eastern region of Europe was known as the Balkans. Many states were located in this area, such as Greece, Romania, Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro and many other small states were under the control of the Ottoman Empire. Ottoman began to lose power in the early 20th Century. The Slavic living in Austria and Serbia launched a national movement in support of Russia which is called the All Slavic movement, whose aim was to liberate the state of Serbia, the Slavic region. Austria protested this movement. In 1908 Austria and Serbia became the adversaries of one another and this became the cause of World War-I.

Before the first World War the following countries of Europe established their colonies in Asia and Africa.

• In Asia, India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar and Malaya were the colonies of England and Persia, Afghanistan, Tibet, Nepal and Middle East were also influenced by England. 
• Indo-China and Indonesia was under the control of France. ‘ 
• In Africa England, France, Germany, Italy, Portugal, Spain etc. established their colonies.

Correct Answer is: (c) 1979 CE

Fast industrial development began in England, France, Germany, Italy, Japan and America by the 19 th Century. With this raw materials were required and new markets were needed for finished goods. Increasing population and Military requirements etc. inspired the European countries for establishing colonies. In this competition England and France got most of the regions. After 1890 CE Germany also began to try to establish overseas colonies. Russia and Austria started to increase influence over Balkan region. Italy also entered this competition. This colonial rivalry created the feelings of hatred among the nations. As a result, these nations confronted each other in the first World War.

Stalin defeated Trotsky and got the highest post by the co-operation of Kemnev and Zinonev.

The full name of Stalin was Joseph Visarionovich Jugswili Stalin.

According to Lenin’s direction, the armed revolution decide to capture power on 10 October 1917 and a ‘Politburo’ was appointed. Posters pasted at all places in the capital Petrograd announced that ‘Temporary government’ had been abolished and in its place the committee of the proletariat revolutionaries of Petrograd took power. The Bolshevik revolution started suddenly at night and and was completed by the morning. There was no need for bloodsheed as the other side offered no resistance. The General public had to suffer the red terror of the revolutionaries and white terror of the Czarists. On November 7, 1917, Bolsheviks occupied power. The session of All Russian Soviet Union started in which 390 were Bolsheviks out of 649 representatives. On 8th November 1917 under the leadership of Lenin, new council of people ‘Kommisar’ was promoted which brought political, social and economic transformation and propagated proletariat revolution in the world.

The poor labourers started robbing petrograd due to hunger and cold. The emperor ordered the bullets on them, but the soldiers refused to fire. On 8 March 1917, women factory labourers of Petrograd joined the strike because they did not get enough food to eat. Next day, men were also included in the strike. These people were sloganeering with ‘give us bread’ as well as demanding an end to tyranical rule. This struggle was carried out upto three days. As a result ‘revolutionaries Soviet’ was formed by workers and soldiers and Monarchy ruling system was ended.

Karl Marx is the writer of ‘Das capital’.

During the first World War Germany invaded Russia on 1 August 1914 CE.

From the very beginning, women were active participants in the events which brought about so many important changes in French society.

1. They hoped that their involvement would pressurise the revolutionary government to introduce measures to improve their lives.

2. Most women of the third estate had to work for a living. They worked as seamstresses or laundresses, sold flowers, fruits and vegetables at the market, or were employed as domestic servants in the houses of prosperous people.

3. Most women did not have access to education or job training. Their wages were lower than those of men.

4. One of their main demands was that women should be given the same political rights as men.

5. Women were disappointed that the constitution of 1791 reduced them to passive citizens.

Correct Answer is: (b) 1/6

The condition of Russian people, especially those of the working population like the farmers and the factory workers was very deplorable as compared to other European countries. It was mainly due to the autocratic government of the Tsar Nicholas II who antagonized these people day-by-day by his corrupt and oppressive policies.
The peasants worked as serf on the land and much of their produce went into the hands of landowners and the privileged classes. The nobility, the crown and the Orthodox Church owned large properties. Although these peasants were generally deeply religious but they had no

respect for the nobility. In European countries the peasants respected nobles and fought for them. But in Russia, peasants wanted the land of the nobles to be given to them. Due to the various oppressive policies and out of frustration, often they refused to pay rent and even murdered landlords.
The condition of the factory workers was equally miserable. They could not form any trade unions and political parties to express their grievance. Most industries were run by the private industrialists. They exploited the workers for their selfish ends. Many times these workers did not get even the minimum fixed wages. There was no limit of working ours as a result of which they had to work from 12 - 15 hours a day. Their conditions were so miserable that they had neither political rights nor any hope of gaining any reforms until the beginning of the Russian Revolution of 1917.

1. They got their name from the former convent of St. Jacob in Paris. 

2. They belonged to the less prosperous sections of the society. 

3. They included small shopkeepers, artisans such as shoemakers, pastry cooks, watch-makers, printers, as well as servants and daily wage earners. 

4. Their leader was Maximilian Robespierre. 

5. A large group among the Jacobin decided to wear long striped trousers similar to those worn by dock workers. 

6. This was to set themselves apart from the fashionable sections of society especially the nobles who wore knee breeches.

Following were the causes of Russia taking interest in Balkan area : 

• Most of the states were under the control of Turks.
• Slavs, who were orginally Russians, lived in the areas of Turks and Austria. Russia wanted to divide Turkish empire and established the great Slav state. 
• The slavs started a nationalist movement with Russian support. The objective of this movement was to make the Slav majority state Serbia independent. 
• Austria opposed this movement. 
• Austria captured Slav states Bosnia and Herzegovina. 
• Thus Austria and Serbia became rivals. 
• Russia had to interfere force in the politics of Balkan for the protection of Serbia.

The main secret revolutionary institutions of Serbia were : ‘Black Hand’ and ‘Organization of Death’. ‘

There is one saying that ‘unity is strength’. If all the people of a nation are united they can avert foreign invasion. Otherwise, we have to lose our country.

Ex: During Alexander’s invasion if Porus and Ambi were united, he would not enter our country But ‘Ambi’ made an alliance with Alexander. So he defeated ‘Por us’ and oc¬cupied some parts of our country.

People face various difficulties in a non-democratic country as we have seen in case of Chile, Myanmar, Ghana, Pakistan, Poland, Nepal etc.
In non-democratic countries, the people have no security of life. For example, in Chile thousands of people were killed by military rulers.
People are not free to express their opinions. Criticizing the government or rulers in a non-democratic country would lead to severe punishments.
There is no freedom for the people either to elect their government or to be elected. Even if they find any government or ruler not to their benefit or well-being, they cannot change it since there is no election.
In non-democratic countries no opposition parties or opposition leader is tolerated. As we have seen in Poland during the regime of a non-democratic government, the workers are not allowed to form their independent Trade Unions. Only such unions can survive which rightly or wrongly support the policies of the government.
In absence of a democratic government there is no socio-economic equality. Societies in such countries remain divided among privileged and non-privileged classes which result in corruption in every department of the government. Ordinary people cannot aspire for any post. People are always at the mercy of the autocratic ruler or the dictator.

Freedoms denied to the people when a democracy is overthrown by the military are so many.
In 1973, a military rule or a non-democratic government was established in Chile by General Augusto Pinochet while in Poland, there was a non-democratic government led by General Jeruzelski before 1989. We have seen people were denied many of their freedoms when they did not have democracies, for example:
The people had no ‘right to freedom of speech’ as was the case with the women of Calama in Chile.
The people had no ‘right to from associations or trade unions’ as was the case with the workers like a crane operator and an n electrician in Poland.
In Poland thousands of Solidarity members were put in prison. Freedom to organize, protest and express opinions were taken away.
In Chile more than three thousand people were killed by the military. The life of the people was at the mercy of the ruler.
The people had no ‘right to have free elections’ as was the case in Poland before the dawn of democracy there.
It was because of the above reasons i.e. no freedom of expression, no freedom of forming their own Trade Unions, no right to have free elections, socio-economic inequality and lack of security of life that the people liked to have change in their dictatorial government.

(a) If any country gives more money to international institutions and its citizens want more respect and more power, it would not contribute to democracy at the global level. Every country and its citizens enjoy equal status whether it is a poor or a rich country. Equality is the basic principle of democracy.
(b) If any country is small or poor but its citizens are treated equally and their voice is heard with equal respect it will promote to equality and freedom of expression. If this is done at the global level, then this will definitely contribute to democracy at the global level. Because of these two facts we can say that the (b) position is nearer to democracy.
(c) The third position would also not lead to democracy at the global level because there should be no distinction between the rich nations and the poor nations. Otherwise it will not help in bringing socio-economic equality which is one of the important aspects of democracy. At the global level all the countries, whether poor or rich, should be treated at par with each other.
(d) The last (d) position would also not contribute democracy at the global level because the sizes or the geographical area of a country should not be a condition of superiority. However, in my opinion in international organizations like UN, General Assembly should become like a world parliament with representatives from each country in proportion to the population of the country further study

Correct Answer is: (c) 4

In Balkan region Bulgaria was unsatisfied because a large part of its territory was snatched by Serbia, Greece, etc.

Correct Answer is (b) Bismark

In International scenerio, the great contribution of the first World War was the establishment of ‘League of Nations’.

Peter the great said “In the world Czar is not responsible to anybody.”

The credit of establishing the first communist government in the world goes to Lenin. Bolshevik Revolution’s great hero was born on 22nd April 1870 in Russia’s Volga province near Simbirask. On 8th May 1887 Lenin’s brother was hanged till death for the murder of Czar Alexander-Ill. Tormented by this event Lenin decided to remove Czarist rule from its roots. 

For this he did the following :

• As a result of division of Social democratic party in 1903, Lenin formed Bolshevik party. 
• Lenin got strong position in Bolshevik party by organising the structure, programmes and sessions of the party and defeated his enemies. 
• From 1900 CE to 1917 Lenin spent most of his time in foreign countries. In this time Lenin developed the network of Bolsheviks. 
• On 23 October 1917 CE under the leadership of Lenin the Bolshevik party decided to take control of the reigne by an armed uprising and a ‘Politburo’ was appointed for implementation of the plan. 
• The head of Petrograd Trotasky formed the ‘Soldier Revolutionary Committee’ of Soviet. Inspite of this, on 7 November 1917 CE under the efficient leadership and strong organisation of Lenin, Bolsheviks became successful in taking control of the country. 
• On 8th November 1917 under the leadersip of Lenin, the first cabinet of new government (Council of People Kommisar) was formed which brought political, social and economic transformation and propagated proletariat revolution in the world.

The first World War was fought from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918 CE. This was a disasterous war which had far-reaching results. 

The political consequences of the first World War were as follows :

1. End of Autocracy : The war ended the autocracy in Germany, Russia, Austria and Turkey. Along with this nobility and the feudal class also came to end. 

2. Development of Democracy : After the first World War, democracy was established in Hungary, Poland, Czhechoslovakia, Lithuania, Estonia, Latvia, etc. Turkey’s ruler Mustafa Kamal Pasha also established a republican government. 

3. The spirit of Nationalism and the rise of new states : New states arose, such as Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Lithuania, Estonia, Finland and Poland. 

4. (iv) The Rise of new opinions : Bolshevik Revolution took place in Russia in 1917, leading to communism. Fascism in Italy, Nazism in Germany and militarism in Japan was born. The world had become a tinderbox of tension again. 

5. Increase in the influence of United States of America : America became supreme among European nations. Its commerce quadrupled every day. At this time Germany’s trade and commerce had declined and America’s control of European trade was absolute. 

6. The Firms Race : The modern weapons and the equipment began to be built and the arms race sparked the second World War.

The word Veda means knowledge. Veda (or Vedas) is a large body of knowledge texts in the form of verses and hymns that originated in ancient India. It is composed in Vedic Sanskrit. It is the oldest Sanskrit literature and also the oldest scripture of Hinduism. Many saints contributed to the addition of content in the Veda from time to time. Initially, there was only one Veda. But, with time due to several additions, the Veda became extremely large. Later, it was divided into four parts.

The four-part of Vedas are:

1. Rigveda
2. Samveda
3. Yajurveda
4. Atharvaveda

Bach Veda was then divided into four sections. These were:

1. Samhita,
2. Brahmana Brahmanical literature,
3. Aranyakas, and
4. Upanishads.

Due to defeat in the war of 1871 CE France had to give two fertile and industrial areas : Alsace and Lorraine to Germany.

Bismark was the father of secret treaties.

(b) 11 November 1918

Correct Answer is: (c) 30

The immediate cause of the first world war was the invasion of Austria on Serbia. The relations of Austria and Serbia kept deteriorating from 1908 which reached its peak by 1914. One of these organisations was ‘Black Hand’. This organisation together with another organisation ‘Organisation of death’, planned to assassinate the governor, petriach of Bosnia. But at this time, he came to know that the prince of Austria, Ferdinand was supposed to be on a government tour of Bosnia, then he conspired the murder. This murder was strongly condemned in Austria. Austria decided to inflict punishment on Serbia for the killing. The Austrian authorities thwarted the sovereignty demand for participation in the issue of Serbian cessesion. So they rejected the contention of Serbian plea as unsatisfactory and declared war against Serbia on July 28, 1914 CE.

(a) Austria-Allied nations

Sanskrit language is also known as language of sages or scholars.

In ancient time, Sanskrit was the language of religion, philosophy, knowledge and science.

In 1882 CE Germany, Austria and Italy formed trinary group.

Ancient time, Indian literature is known for its diversity and uniqueness.

The name of two powers before World War-I were : United States of America and Japan.