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The United States of America is supreme among the great powers of the world. India’s relations with the USA never remained simple. These relations have been changed from time to time. After Indian independence, strained relations remained between both the countries over the issue of Kashmir and several other issues.

Following are the main reasons of strained relations between both the countries.

1. the United States of America started to give more and more military help to Pakistan. India strongly opposed it but America hardly cared about it.
2. Pakistan become the member of military alliances made by America but India refused to become member of these alliances.
3. Bangladesh come into existence as a result of the Indo-Pakistan war in 1971 A.D. America tried to interfere in war in favour of Pakistan but India strongly opposed it.
4. America established military bases in Pakistan. America has made military cantonments at Digo-Garcia island in Indian ocean. India also opposed it because c’ its security concerns.
5. There are some basic differences among India and America on the issue of Nuclear Power. India is developing Nuclear power but America has strongly opposed it. Even America has stopped supply of nuclear fuel to India.
6. India has not signed Nuclear Prolification Treaty (NPT) because it is not based on moral values. This treaty is partial. This treaty restricts those countries to make nuclear weapons who don’t have nuclear power. On the other side there is no such restrictions on Nuclear powers.

Actually Indian relations with America are strained due to these given reasons. But still they are not much strained. Both the countries are cooperating each other in economic, technological, scientific and cultural fields. In 1993 A.D. Bill Clinton become the President of USA and from then these relations are improving day by day. America helps India in economic sector as well. The USA and its economic institutions are playing a very important role in economic system of India in present age. We can expect better relations in near future as well.

India is a secular country. People of different religions live over in India whose religious beliefs are different. Communal riots broke out in country at many occasions due to religious fundamentalism. Incident occurred at Gujarat in 2002 A.D. was one of the serious incident of such type. Many people are of the view that government should give special care to the interests of minorities.

Correct option is (c) Twelve

Many economic problems occurred in India due to division of the countries. Large part of wheat and rice producing areas of India went to Pakistan. Large part of irrigated land also went to Pakistan. So there was a shortfall of grains in India. In the same way large part of jute and cotton producing areas went over to India. There was a short fall of raw material for jute and textile industries. So Indian government started to find solution of these problems to improve economic condition of the country. That’s why Planning Commission was established in 1950 to achieve this objective. In this way the process of economic development started in the country which is still going on. This shadow can be seen in agricultural and industrial sectors as well.

Agriculture: India is a agriculture based country. Foodgrains are produced on 75% agricultural land of the country. Rice, wheat, peanut, sugarcane, maize, sunflower, etc. are important foodgrain crops. India made dams on all the important rivers for the development of country. These dams give water to agricultural land and stop floods to a great extent. These dams are helpful in producing electricity. These are known as river valleys. Nangal Dam, Damodar Valley Dam, Harikud Dam, Tungabhadra Dam and , Nagaijuna Sagar Dam are some of the important dams of the country.

Special steps were taken by the government to increase agricultural production. Farmers were told new methods of farming. Government gives good seeds and fertilizers to farmers. Poor farmers are given loans from Banks to improve agriculture. In this way government is trying to improve condition of agriculture.

Industry: Industrial development started in India even during British rule. Many Textile, Iron, Sugar, Matchstick, Cement industries were established in that age. But these industries were unable to develop fully because British hardly took care in development of Indian industry. But after independence, India started to spread industrial sector in the country. Engineering tools, Electrical goods, computers and related goods, medicine and industries of agricultural tools were established in the country. Many Multinational companies established their industries in the country. These industries have given employment to lakhs of skilled and semi-skilled labourers.

Indian government took special interest in Scientific and Industrial inventions. Many universities were set up to invent new tools, seeds, fertilizers, etc.

India likes to keep friendly relations with all the countries, especially our neighbouring countries. Pakistan and China are the most important neighbouring countries of India.

Brief description of India’s relations with them is given below :

India and Pakistan: India has always tried to keep friendly relations with Pakistan. Pakistan didn’t give its sanction to Kashmir’s inclusion with India. That’s why Kashmir became the main reason of conflict between India and Pakistan. India and Pakistan have fought three wars with each other due to Kashmir problem. Kargil war of 1999 A.D. was one of them.

After the Indo-Pak war of 1971 A.D. Shimla Agreement was signed between Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi and Pakistani Prime Minister, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto. The main objective of this agreement was to peacefully resolve all the problems of Indo-Pak. That’s why Lahore Agreement was also signed between Indian Prime Minister Atal Behari Vajpai and Pakistani Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif. Bus service and Railway service was also started between both the countries. People of both the countries came closer to each other due to these services. Indian and Pakistani writers and social servers are free to move from one country to another. So the railway and bus services started between both the countries which could give strength to these friendly relations. We believe that the areas of disputes would be resolved in near future.

India and China: Indian relations with China remained friendly right from ancient times. Both countries were associated with each other due to trade and Buddhism. When Communist revolution came in China in 1949 A.D. then India was the first country to give sanction to new government of China. India also supported China as a member of U.N.O. An agreement took place between India and China in 1954 A.D. on the basis of Panchsheel. But both countries also fought war with each other due to border disputes. Very tense relations remained between both the countries for several years. These relations improved after 1980 A.D. Indian and Chinese Prime Ministers met each other on several occasions and discussed their areas of dispute. Today, both the countries are busy in solving their border disputes.

Nawab of the Junagarh state wanted to be included in Pakistan. But Plebiscite (Public survey) took place over there on 20th February 1948 A.D. in which people wished to be included in Indian Union. That’s why Junagarh state was included in Indian Union.

The state of Hyderabad was included in India with the help of the police. Indian police were sent over there on 13th September 1948 A.D. and this state was merged in Indian Union on 17th September 1948 A.D.

The Indian Constitution was passed on 26th November 1949 A.D. and implemented on 26th January 1950.

By political equality, Dr. Ambedkar meant the universal adult franchise which gave equal rights to all citizens. By socioeconomic inequality, he meant the income disparities among people.

Lord Mountbetten and Mohammad Ali Jinnah respectively.

Dr. Rajendra Prasad was the first President of India.

After independence, India made a committee of 7 members to frame the Constitution. It was assigned the work of drafting the Constitution. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar was made its chairman. This committee made the draft and produced in front of constituent assembly on 21st February, 1948 A.D. Discussion on this draft was started from 4th Nov. 1948. Assembly had to go through 11 meetings for this. Around 2473 amendments were produced during this discussion age and some of them were accepted. This Constitution was passed on 26th November, 1949 A.D. and was implemented on 26th January 1950 A.D.

‘SAARC was founded in 1985 A.D. Its full form is ‘SOUTH ASIAN ASSOCIATION OF REGIONAL COOPERATION’. Its objective was to produce economic cooperation and mutual peace among South Asian countries.

There were seven members of Drafting Committee of Indian Constitution. The Chairman of this committee was Dr. B.R. Ambedkar.

Correct option is (b) Dec. 1946

Correct option is (b) Vote

Inflation is a world-wide problem in today’s age. But this problem has taken serious form in India. Today everything available in the market is expensive. Prices of goods are increasing day by day. As a result most number of people are unable to fulfil their basic needs of daily life. That’s why the government should take some concrete steps to control increasing inflation. Government should implement such plans in the country with which Inflation could be reduced.

Problem of unemployment is increasing day by day because number of unemployed persons is increasing. Most of the unemployment exists among literate people. Government is trying a lot to resolve this problem. Retired servicemen, literate unemployed are given loans from government so that they could start their own business. Retirement age of job is reducing so that more and more people could get employment. Additional occupations like rearing of cattle, pigs, honey bees, etc. are being encouraged, Training and loan facilities are also provided to them.

Correct option is (d) All of these

Problem of Casteism: Problem of casteism is one of the main obstacles in the way of our national unity. Some people always hate the people of other castes. Even politicians and political parties take the help of caste to get support of the people. But it is required from us that all the people should be equally treated. According to Article 17 of Constitution, untouchability is restricted in any form.

Problem of Poverty: The Problem of poverty is one of the largest obstacles in the way of progress of the country. Indian people are so poor that they are unable to get proper food of one day. Main reasons of poverty are increasing population, less agricultural production and unemployment. Government has tried a lot to reduce poverty.

(i) In pre-colonial times Maasai society was divided into two social categories – elders and warriors. The elders formed the ruling group and met in periodic councils to decide on the affairs of the community and settle disputes. 

(ii) The warriors consisted of younger people, mainly responsible for the protection of the tribe. They defended the community and organised cattle raids. Raiding was important in a society where cattle was wealth. It is through raids that the power of different pastoral groups was asserted. 

(iii) Young men came to be recognized as members of the warrior class when they proved their manliness by raiding the cattle of other pastoral groups and participating in wars. They, however, were subject to the authority of the elders. 

(i) Tax was imposed on land, on canal water, on salt, on trade goods, and even on animals. Pastoralists had to pay tax on every animal they grazed on the pastures. In most pastoral tracts of India, grazing tax was introduced in the midnineteenth century. 

(ii) The tax per head of cattle went up rapidly and the system of collection was made increasingly efficient. 

(iii) The right to collect the tax was given to contractors. 

(iv) By the 1880 s the government began collecting taxes directly from the pastoralists. Each of them was given a pass. To enter a grazing tract, a cattle herder had to show the pass and pay the tax. The number of cattle heads he had and the amount of tax he paid was entered on the pass. 

(i) They were forced to live within the confines of special reserves. The boundaries of these reserves became the limits within which they could now move. 

(ii) They were not allowed to move out with their stock without special permits. And it was difficult to get permits without trouble and harassment. Those found guilty of disobeying the rules were severely punished. 

(iii) Pastoralists were also not allowed to enter the markets in white areas. In many regions, they were prohibited from participating in any form of trade. White settlers and European colonists saw pastoralists as dangerous and savage. 

(iv) Closing of borders adversely affected both their pastoral and trading activities. Earlier, pastoralists not only looked after animal herds but traded in various products. The restrictions under colonial rule did not entirely stop their trading activities. 

(i) British officials were suspicious of nomadic people. They distrusted mobile craftsmen and traders who sold their goods in villages, and pastoralists who changed their places of residence every season, moving in search of good pastures for their herds. 

(ii) The colonial government wanted to rule over a settled population. Such a population was easy to identify and control and collect taxes. 

(iii) Those who were settled were seen as peaceable and law abiding; those who were nomadic were considered to be criminal. 

(iv) In 1871, the colonial government in India passed the Criminal Tribes Act. By this Act many Communities of craftsmen, traders and pastoralists were classified as Criminal Tribes. 

(v) They were stated to be criminal by nature and birth. Once this Act came into force, these communities were expected to live only in notified village settlements. They were not allowed to move out without a permit. The village police kept a continuous watch on them. 

(i) By the mid-nineteenth century, various Forest Acts were being enacted in the different provinces. Through these Acts some forests which produced commercially valuable timber like deodar or sal were declared ‘Reserved’. 

(ii) No pastoralist was allowed access to reserved forests. Other forests were classified as ‘Protected’. In protected forests, some customary grazing rights of pastoralists were granted but their movements were severely restricted. 

(iii) These Forest Acts changed the lives of pastoralists. They were now prevented from entering many forests that had earlier provided valuable forage for their cattle. 

(iv) Even in the areas they were allowed entry, their movements were regulated. They needed a permit for entry. The timing of their entry and departure was specified, and the number of days they could spend in the forest was limited. 

(v) Pastoralists could no longer remain in an area even if forage was available, they had to move because the ‘Forest Department permits’ that had been issued to them now ruled their lives. The permit specified the periods in which they could be legally within a forest. If they overstayed they were liable to fines. 

(i) They had to judge how long the herds could stay in one area. Know where they could find water and pasture. 

(ii) They needed to calculate the timing of their movements, and ensure that they could move through different territories. 

(iii) They had to set up a relationship with farmers on the way, so that the herds could graze in harvested fields and manure the soil. 

(iv) They combined a range of different activities – cultivation, trade, and herding – to make their living.

(i) To colonial officials all uncultivated land appeared to be unproductive: it produced neither revenue nor agricultural produce. It was seen as ‘waste land’ that needed to be brought under cultivation. 

(ii) From the mid-nineteenth century, Waste Land Rules were enacted in various parts of the country. By these Rules uncultivated lands were taken over and given to select individuals. These individuals were granted various concessions and encouraged to settle these lands. Some of them were made headmen of villages in the newly cleared areas. In most areas the lands taken over were actually grazing tracts used regularly by pastoralists. So expansion of cultivation inevitably meant the decline of pastures and a problem for pastoralists. 

(i) They appointed chiefs of different sub-groups of Maasai, who were made responsible for the affairs of the tribe. 

(ii) The British imposed various restrictions on raiding and warfare. 

(iii) Consequently, the traditional authority of both elders and warriors was adversely affected. 

First, the traditional difference based on age, between the elders was disturbed though it did not break down completely. Second, a new distinction between the wealthy and poor pastoralists developed. 

(i) One of the problems the Maasais have faced is the continuous loss of their grazing lands. European imperial powers scrambled for territorial possessions in Africa, slicing up the region into different colonies. 

(ii) The best grazing lands were gradually taken over for white settlement and the Maasai were pushed into a small area in south Kenya and north Tanzania. 

(iii) The British colonial government in east Africa also encouraged local peasant communities to expand cultivation. As cultivation expanded, pasturelands were turned into cultivated fields. 

(iv) Maasai pastoralists had dominated their agricultural neighbours both economically and politically. Grazing land were also turned into game reserves like the Maasai Mara and Samburu National Park in Kenya and Serengeti Park in Tanzania. 

(v) Pastoralists were not allowed to enter these reserves; they could neither hunt animals nor graze their herds in these areas. Very often these reserves were in areas that had traditionally been regular grazing grounds for Maasai herds. The Serengeti National Park, for instance, was created over 14,760 km. of Maasai grazing land. 

The loss of the finest grazing lands and water resources created pressure on the small area of land that the Maasai were confined within. Continuous grazing within a small area inevitably meant a deterioration of the quality of pastures. Fodder was always in short supply. Feeding the cattle became a persistent problem. 

1. There was difference between a landless peasant and landless workers. 

2. Landless peasants practice only cultivation either taking land on rent or attending the agricultural works or both of them. 

3. On the other hand landless workers do not practice cultivation.

4. They only attend to agricultural work or in absence of these they will search for another employment or settle in activities other than agriculture.

1. The French were keen to develop Vietnam as an exporter of rice. 

2. For this purpose they made a three fold strategy. 

3. That includes improving irrigation network, encouraging landlords and encouraging marketing of agricultural produce like rice and rubber. 

4. Thus, French started building canals and draining lands in the Mekong delta. 

5. It was followed by infrastructure projects to help transport like roads and railways.

Under colonial rule, the life of pastoralists changed dramatically. Their grazing grounds shrank, their movements were regulated and they had to pay more revenue. Their agricultural stock declined and their trade and crafts were adversely affected.

(i) from the mid-nineteenth century, Wasteland Rules were enacted in various parts of the country. By these rules uncultivated lands were taken over and given to selected individuals.

(ii) By the mid-nineteenth century, various Forest Acts were also enacted in different provinces. Through these Acts some forests which produced valuable timber like deodar or sal were declared 'Reserved'. No pastoralist was allowed access to these forests. Other forests were classified as 'protected'.

(iii) In 1871, the colonial government in India passed the 'Criminal Tribes Act'. By this Act, many communities of craftsmen, traders and pastoralists were classified as Criminal Tribes. They were stated to be criminal by nature and birth. Once this Act came into force, these communities were expected to live only in notified village settlements.

(iv) to expand its revenue income, the colonial government looked for every possible source of taxation. So, tax was imposed on land, on canal water, on salt, on trade goods, and even on animals (the Grazing Tax).

रसायन विज्ञान की वह शाखा जो रसायनों के द्वारा रोगों के उपचार से संबंधित होती है, रसायन चिकित्सा कहलाती है।

1. British officials were suspicious of nomadic people. They distrusted mobile craftsmen and traders who hawked their goods in villages, and pastoralists who changed their places of residence every season, moving in search of good pastures for their herds.

2. The colonial government wanted to rule over a settled population. They wanted the rural people to live in villages, in fixed places with fixed rights on particular fields. Such a population was easy to identify and control.

3. Those who were settled were seen as peaceable and law-abiding; those who were nomadic were considered to be criminal. Because of all the above reasons, in 1871 the colonial government in India had passed the Criminal Tribes Act.

4. By this Act, many communities of craftsmen, traders and pastoralists were classified as criminal tribes. They were stated to be criminal by nature and birth.

5. To expand its revenue income, the colonial government imposed the grazing tax. Pastoralists had to pay tax on every animal they grazed on the pastures.

(1) It led to a serious shortage of pastures. When grazing lands were taken over and turned into cultivated fields, the available area of pastureland declined. 

(2) The reservation of forests meant that shepherds and cattle herders could no longer freely pasture their cattle in the forests. 

(3) This led to continuous intensive grazing of these pastures. 

(4) When restrictions were imposed on pastoral movements, grazing lands came to be continuously used and the quality of pastures declined. 

(5) This in turn created a further shortage of forage for animals and the deterioration of animal stock. 

1. There are many similarities in the way in which the modern world forced changes in the lives of pastoral communities in India and Africa.

2. All uncultivated land was seen as wasteland by colonial powers. It produced neither revenue nor agricultural produce. This land was brought under cultivation. In most areas the lands taken over were actually grazing tracts used regularly by pastoralists. So expansion of cultivation inevitably meant the decline of pastures and a problem both for Indian pastoralists and the Maasai.

3. From the 19th century onwards the colonial government started imposing restrictions on the pastoral communities. They were issued permits which allowed them to move out with their stocks and it was difficult to get permits without trouble and harassment. Those found guilty of disobeying rules were punished.

Waste Land rules: This law was brought to take control of the land which was not under cultivation. The surplus land could be used to increase the area under cultivation and also to increase land revenue. This Rule shrunk the pastureland which was earlier available.

Forest Acts: These Acts were introduced to gain control of those forests which had commercially important trees. Moreover, these acts were also utilised to collect some revenue from the pastoralists. The movement of pastoralists was severely restricted because of new Forest Acts. Instead of planning their movement according to the season, the pastoralists now had to move according to the new rules.

Criminal Tribes Act: This Act was introduced to force the nomadic tribes to a settled life. It was difficult to collect taxes from the nomadic people because they did not have permanent address. This Act tarnished the image of nomadic tribes. This disturbed their relationship with peasants and other mainstream communities. It also badly affected their earnings.

Grazing Tax: Grazing Tax was introduced in order to widen the tax net. This tax put a new burden on the pastoralists.

The important postulates of Bohr’s atomic model are as follows:

1. The electrons revolving around the atomic nucleus lie in the concentric circular orbits at certain distance from the nucleus. 

2. Energy of an electron is constant while it is in a particular orbit. 

3. When an electron jumps from an inner orbit to an outer orbit it absorbs specific amount of energy, and when it jumps from an outer orbit to an inner orbit it emits specific amount of energy. 

4. The energy emitted or absorbed during these transitions is equal to energy difference between the initial state and the final state of the electron.

1. The nucleus of an atom contains protons and neutrons. 

2. The electrons revolve around the nucleus. 

3. The mass of an electron is negligible compared to that of a proton or a neutron. 

4. Hence, the mass of an atom depends mainly on the number of protons and neutrons. Therefore, practically all the mass of an atom is concentrated in the nucleus.

A particle which is a constituent of an atom hence smaller than the atom is called subatomic particle. An atom is formed from the nucleus and the extranuclear part. These contain three types of subatomic particles.

The nucleus contains two types of subatomic particles together called nucleons. Protons and neutrons are the two types of nucleons or subatomic particles and electrons are subatomic particles in the extra nuclear part.

1. Proton (p): Proton is a positively charged subatomic particle in the atomic nucleus. The positive charge on the nucleus is due to the proton in it. A proton is represented by the symbol ‘p’. Each proton carries a positive charge of +1e. (1e = 1.6 × 10^-19 coulomb). When total positive charge on the nucleus is expressed in the unit ‘e’, its magnitude is equal to the number of proton in the nucleus. The mass of one proton is approximately lu (1 Dalton).

(1u = 1.66 × 10^-27g) (The mass of one hydrogen atom is also approximately lu.)

2. Neutron (n): Neutron is an electrically neutral subatomic particle and is denoted by the symbol ‘n’. The number of neutron in the nucleus is denoted by the symbol ‘N’ Atomic nuclei of all the elements except hydrogen with atomic mass lu, contain neutrons. The mass of a neutron is approximately lu, which is almost equal to that of a proton.

3. Electron (e ): Electron is a negatively charged subatomic particle and is denoted by the symbol ‘e-’. Each electron carries one unit of negative charge (-1e). Mass of an electron is 1800 times less than that of a hydrogen atom. Therefore the mass of an electron can be treated as negligible. Electron in the extranuclear part revolve in the discrete orbits around the nucleus. The energy of an electron is determined by the shell in which it is present.

There are three types of subatomic particles found in atom, viz. the proton, neutron and electron.

If the value of exports is more than the value of imports, then the trade balance is positive, and if the value of imports is more than the value of exports, the trade balance is negative.

If the value of imports is more than the value of exports, the trade balance becomes negative.

Goods with Comparative profit.

(c) Petroleum goods

The names of two major nation groups which are import partners of India: 

1. Developing Nations. 

2. Organization of oil exporting countries (OPEC).

(c) Developing Nations