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District of Thanjavour owes its fertility to the delta of Kaveri and it is called Garden of South.

The rivers Mahanadi, Godawari and Kaveri form delta on the eastern coast before falling into the Bay of Bengal.

Bagirathi and Alaknanda meet at a point known as Devprayag.

Satluj, Vyas, Chenab, Ravi and Jhelum form the Indus river system.

South Indian rivers: 

1. Most of the rivers flow from west towards the east. 

2. The source of these rivers is in mountain region. 

3. They are mostly rain-fed and do not flow throughout the year. 

4. They are suitable for irrigation. 

5. They form large fertile plains. 

6. They include more waterfalls. 

7. Divided in two parts—rivers which drain in Bay of Bengal and others which drain into Arabian Sea.

North Indian rivers:

1. The rivers flow to south from north. 

2. The source of these rivers is Himalayas. 

3. These rivers are perennial rivers. They flow throughout the year. 

4. They are very suitable for irrigation. 

5. They do not form long fertile plains. 

6. They include less waterfalls. 

7. Divided into three parts—Indus river system, Ganga river system, and Brahmaputra river system.

(a) Indus river system: The rivers of this system originate from the western Himalayas, flow upwards and drain into the Arabian Sea. It includes the Indus and its tributaries, i.e. Satluj, Beas, Chenab, Ravi and Jhelum. The upper drainage course of these rivers is in India and the lower drainage course is in Pakistan. The river Satluj originates from the Rakshastal near Mansarovar lake in the southern slope of the Kailash mountain. It is on this river that Bhakra Nangal dam has been constructed near Ropar in Punjab. The famous tourist city, Srinagar is situated on the bank of river Jhelum.

(b) Ganga river system: This system includes the rivers originating from the North, i.e. Ganga and its tributaries namely Yamuna, Ghagra, Gandak, Kosi, etc. and the rivers originating from Plateau, i.e. Chambal, Betwa, Kalisindh and Son. The Ganga is the most significant river of India. It originates from the Gangotri glacier. It is in fact, formed at a point where both the Bhagirathi and the Alaknanda meet and this meeting point is known as Devprayag. The river Ganga enters the plain area near Haridwar. It is joined by Yamuna near Prayag, Gomti near Gajipur, Ghaghra near Chhapra. Yamuna is its main tributary. It originates from Yamunotri. Chambal, Betwa, Ken, etc. merge in it. The river Ganga enters Bangladesh near Farakka. Here it is called Padma. Before falling into the Bay of Bengal it forms a delta with the river Brahmaputra. Chambal is the tributaiy of the Yamuna and it is the only perennial river of Rajasthan. Its tributaries are the Banas, Parvati, Kalisindh, etc.

(c) Brahmaputra river system: Brahmaputra is the longest river of India. It originates in a place near Mansarovar lake of the Kailash mountain in Tibet. It flows eatwards parallel to the Himalayas. When it reaches eastern end of the Himalayas, it is called the river Tsangpo’. Then it takes turn to the south and then towards west and flowing through Assam enters Bangladesh and then joins river Ganga. Its tributaries are Dibang, Lahit, Dihang, Tista, Janjhi, Kulsi, Manas and Kapil. Many islands are found in between this river. It is known for the occurrence of horrible floods.

(a) Rivers draining in the Bay of Bengal: Most of the rivers of the Peninsular Plateau originate from West and are drained into the Bay of Bengal. The major rivers are Damodar, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri, Bhima, Mahanadi, Tungbhadra and Pennar. River Kaveri originates from district Durg of Karnataka. It is called the Ganga of South India. Its water has become a cause of dispute between Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. The fertile land of Thanjavur district is due to the Kaveri delta formed here. It is called the Garden of South. The river Mahanadi originates from the Raipur district of Chhattisgrh. Hirakud dam has been constructed on this river. Its delta is very fertile. The River Krishna originates from the Western ghat near Mahabaleshwar. Near Vijaywada, the canals have been taken out to construct anicut on this river. The river Godavari is the largest river of Peninsular Plateau. It originates from Trayanbak in western ghats near Nasik in Maharashtra. Several islands are found in the last end part of the river due to increase in its width here.

(b) Rivers draining in the Arabian Sea: The Narmada and the Tapti are the major rivers which drain into the Arabian Sea. The Narmada is the longest river. It originates from Amarkantak and flows in rift valley. It presents a beautiful view of the marble rocks of Bhedaghat near Jabalpur and Kapildhara fall. The river Tapti originates in Betul district of Madhya Pradesh. The other rivers which drain into the Arabian Sea are Mahi, Sukari, Badi, Sharavati etc.

River system of North India: It comprises of three types of river systems namely: 

1. The Indus river system 

2. The Ganga river-system 

3. The Brahmaputra river system.

(1) The Indus river system: The rivers of this system originate from the western Himalayas, flow upwards and drain into the Arabian Sea. It includes the Indus and its tributaries, i.e. Satluj, Beas, Chenab, Ravi and Jhelum. The upper drainage course of these rivers is in India and the lower drainage course is in Pakistan. The river Satluj originates from the Rakshastal near Mansarovar lake in the southern slope of the Kailash mountain. It is on this river that Bhakra Nangal dam has been constructed near Ropar in Punjab. The famous tourist city, Srinagar is situated on the bank of river Jhelum.

(2) The Ganga river system: This system includes the rivers originating from the North, i.e. Ganga and its tributaries namely Yamuna, Ghagra, Gandak, Kosi, etc. and the rivers originating from Plateau, i.e. Chambal, Betwa, Kalisindh and Son. The Ganga is the most significant river of India. It originates from the Gangotri glacier. It is in fact, formed at a point where both the Bhagirathi and the Alaknanda meet and this meeting point is known as Devprayag. The river Ganga enters the plain area near Haridwar. It is joined by Yamuna near Prayag, Gomti near Gajipur, Ghaghra near Chhapra. Yamuna is its main tributary. It originates from Yamunotri. Chambal, Betwa, Ken, etc. merge in it. The river Ganga enters Bangladesh near Farakka. Here it is called Padma. Before falling into the Bay of Bengal it forms a delta with the river Brahmaputra. Chambal is the tributaiy of the Yamuna and it is the only perennial river of Rajasthan. Its tributaries are the Banas, Parvati, Kalisindh, etc.

(3) The Brahmaputra river system: Brahmaputra is the longest river of India. It originates in a place near Mansarovar lake of the Kailash mountain in Tibet. It flows eatwards parallel to the Himalayas. When it reaches eastern end of the Himalayas, it is called the river Tsangpo’. Then it takes turn to the south and then towards west and flowing through Assam enters Bangladesh and then joins river Ganga. Its tributaries are Dibang, Lahit, Dihang, Tista, Janjhi, Kulsi, Manas and Kapil. Many islands are found in between this river. It is known for the occurrence of horrible floods.

The Brahmaputra river is also called the river Tsangpo’ near the eastern end of the Himalayas.

River Ganga is called the river Padma when it enters Bangladesh.

Dibang, Luhit, Dihang, Tista, Janjhi, Kulsi, Marias, Kapeli, etc.

(c) Pluck and plant.

According to Section 3 (1) (i) of the Company Act of 195 “Company means a company formed and registered under this Act or £ existing company.” 

In general, a company is an artificial person, created by law that has separate legal entity, perpetual succession, and common seal and t limited liability. It is a voluntary association of person who together contribu in the capital of the company to do business. 

Generally, the capital of a company is divided into small parts known shares, the ownership of which is transferable subject to certain terms s conditions.

Characteristics of Company

(i) Incorporated Association: A company comes into existence through the operation of law. Therefore, its incorporation under the Companies Act is must. Without such registration, no company can come into existence. Being created by law, it is regarded as an artificial legal person. 

(ii) Separate Legal Entity: A company has a separate legal entity, which is not affected by changes in the membership. Therefore being a separate entity, a company can contract, sue and be used in its corporate name and capacity. 

(iii) Artificial Person: A company is an artificial and juristic person that is created by law. 

(iv) Limited Liability: Every shareholder of accompany has limited liability. His liability is limited to the extent of the unpaid value of the shares held by him. If such shares are fully paid up, he is subject to no further liability. 

(v) Perpetual Existence: The existence of company is not affected by the death, retirement, and insolvency of its members. That is, the life of a company remains unaffected by the life and the tenure of its members in the company. The life of a company is infinite until it is properly wound up as per the Companies Act. 

(vi) Common Seal: The company is not a natural person and has no physical existence. Hence, it cannot put its signature. Thus, the common seal acts as an official signature of a company that validates the official documents. 

(vii) Maintenance of Books: A limited company is required by law to keep a prescribed set of account books and any failure in this regard attracts penalties.

Corporate body is a system by which a company is directed and controlled.

There are many expectations of the society from the management. Management works hard to fulfill those expectations. This is called social responsibility. Society provides various inputs to business enterprises, and in return, it expects certain things to be fulfilled by business enterprises. This is the social responsibility of the business enterprise towards the society.

Meaning of social consciousness:

Awareness, alertness of the society. The society must be aware of the fact that basic requirements of a business enterprise is fulfilled by the society. Therefore, the business enterprise and management should be responsible to fulfill the expectation of societies. Social welfare refers to the programme to reduce unemployment, poverty, hunger and providing quality products at reasonable cost.

The Section 3 (1) (i) of the Company Act of 1956 defines an organisation as a company that is formed and registered under the Act or any existing company that is formed and registered under any earlier company laws. In general, a company is an artificial person, created by law that has a separate legal entity, perpetual succession, common seal and has limited liability.

Characteristics of Company 

1. Association of Person: A company is formed Voluntarily by a group of persons to perform a common business. Minimum number of person should be two for formation of a private company and seven for a public company.

2. Artificial Person: Company is an artificial and juristic person that is created by law.

3. Separate Legal Entity: A company has a separate legal entity from its members (shareholders) and Directors. It can open a bank account, sign a contract and can own a property in its own name.

4. Limited Liability: The liability of the members of a company is limited up to the nominal value or the face value of the shares. Unlike a partnership firm, on insolvency of a company, the members and the shareholders are not liable to pay the amount due to the creditors of the company. In fact, the members and the shareholders are only liable to pay the unpaid amount of the shares held by them.

5. Perpetual Existence: The existence of company is not affected by the death, retirement, and insolvency of its members. That is, the life of a company remains unaffected by the life and the tenure of its members in the company. The life of a company is infinite until it is properly wound up as per the Company Act.

6. Common Seal: The Company is an artificial person ‘and has no physical existence hence it cannot put its signature. Thus, the Common Seal acts as an official signature of a company that validates the official documents.

7. Transferability of Shares: The shares of public limited company are easily and freely transferable without any consent from other members. But the share of ownership of a private limited company is not transferable without the consent of the other members.

Every Company having a net worth of rupees five hundred crore or a turnover of rupees one thousand crore or more or a net profit of rupees five crore or more, during any financial year, shall constitute a corporate social responsibility committee of the board consisting of three or more directors, out of which at least one director shall be an independent director. [Section 135(1)].

Cases for social responsibilities: 

i. Threat of public regulation: Not working in line with social welfare can attract unwanted government attention; this can further pose a threat to the image and goodwill of business enterprises. Thus, business enterprises should fulfil their social responsibility to avoid such instances. 

ii. Pressure of labour: An increase in the mobility of human capital and trade unions has increased the pressure on business enterprises to pay attention to the welfare of the workers by providing them healthy working conditions and good remuneration. 

iii. Impact of consumer consciousness: As consumers are increasingly getting aware of their rights and responsibilities, business enterprises are compelled to work more efficiently and to produce better quality products at reasonable rates to satisfy their demands. 

iv. Optimum utilisation of resources: In comparison to other members of the society, business enterprises have greater access to financial and other resources, thus, they should effectively and optimally utilise the resources for solving various social problems. 

v. Existence and trusteeship: The existence of a business depends on how efficiently it serves the society and conduct activities based on trusteeship. According to it, a business would benefit only from those activities which are good for the society.

Management is an economic and social motivator of the society. Therefore, management needs to develop social and economic values, securing the benefits of customers, fulfilling the expectations of the different sectors or sections of the society, males and females, youngsters and children, working women, poor, unemployed, etc. Through different programmes and schemes, the management trains the society for its upliftment and welfare. All these activities are included in concept of social responsibilities of management.

H. R. Bowen defines, “Social responsibility refers to the obligations to pursue those policies, those decisions or to follow those lines of actions which are desirable in terms of the objectives and values of our society.”

Earlier social responsibility of management was restricted to welfare activities, but since the mid 20th century, concept of social responsibility has totally changed, which is called the new concept of social responsibility. The real nature of management is humane and social because it is the trustee of the society’s resources. Therefore, management has to behave according to the society’s expectation. From the last few years, the society has new expectations from the management, like providing leadership for fighting against social evils. Today, the main duty of management is to change the behaviour of the society according to the modern world. 

Therefore, it is clear, that the new social concept is a wider concept which inspires the management to take decisions by keeping society’s benefit in mind. It emphasises on running the business without any unfavourable or negative impact on social beliefs, quality of life, stability, integrity. This motivates the management to make schemes and programmes which can solve the problems of the society and help it to grow and develop.

Following are the points which are said in section 135 (3) of Companies Act, 2013 : 

1. Formulate and recommended to the board, a corporate social responsibility policy which shall indicate the activities to be undertaken by the company as specified in schedule VII.

2. Recommend the amount of expenditure to be incurred on the activities referred to in Clause (a). 

3. Monitor the corporate social responsibility policy of the company from time to time. [Section 135(3)]

Consumer is the king of the market. Consumer’s satisfaction is the key to business success. The government protects the interest of consumers. So any complacence in this regard can be fatal to the business. 

Under these circumstances the management has to fulfill some responsibilities towards them, which are : 

1. To study about their needs, wants, tastes, likings, etc. 

2. To supply right quality and quantity of goods and services to consumers at reasonable prices. 

3. To offer products of uniform standard. 

4. To ensure fair distribution of products.

5. To refrain from indulging in profiteering, hoarding, creating artificial scarcity of products. 

6. To provide prompt and quick services to the consumers. 

7. To handle consumer grievances promptly. 

8. To refrain from misleading product-promoting practices. 

9. To do research on markets, consumers and the goods of consumer utility. 

10.To respect consumer protection laws. 

11.To inform the consumers about the usage and features of products. 

12.To follow the code of conduct.

Following are the obligations of management towards own self: 

1. To take rational decisions, keeping in mind the social interest. 

2. To respect the profession. 

3. To get the membership of professional organisations.

 4. To follow professional code of conduct. 

5. To show professional courtesy. 

6. To contribute towards the development of managerial research and knowledge.

The creditors or investors or lenders play an important role in meeting the financial requirements of business. 

Therefore, the management has to fulfill the following obligations towards them : 

1. To make productive use of debt money. 

2. To keep fair conditions of interest and principal amount while taking loans.

3. To make regular and timely payment of interest and the principal amount borrowed. 

4. To keep custody of mortgaged assets. 

5. To make available the required information to the creditors.

Airports are classified on the basis of the type of traffic they handle. In accordance, the two types of airports in India are international airports and domestic airports.  

The major international airline carriers in India are 

i. Air India 

ii. Indian Airlines 

iii. Jet Airways 

iv. Kingfisher Airlines 

v. Air Sahara 

The major domestic airline carriers in India are 

i. Indian Airlines 

ii. Jet Airways 

iii. Kingfisher Airlines 

iv. Air Sahara 

v. Go Air 

vi. Spice Jet 

vii. Indigo

Today the world has become a global village. Fast travel from one place to another has become increasingly important for business, defence and tourism. Airways offer the best alternative for this purpose. The field of airways is still in an infant stage. Therefore it is right to say that airlines have a great future ahead. 

Business ethics can be defined as the code of conduct that a business organisation must follow. By following these ethics, the organisation takes up only those activities that are desirable from the viewpoint of the society. The purpose of business ethics is to guide the managers and other employees in the organisation to perform their jobs in a socially acceptable manner. 

As the business is part of the society and makes use of human and natural resources that belong to the country and society, it becomes the moral and ethical duty of a business to work towards social welfare and conduct activities that increase the growth and development of the society.

Moreover, business ethics should be followed in the day-to-day working of a business enterprise as it not only increases social welfare but also helps in successful existence of the business.

The government plays a significant role in business operations. 

Therefore, business has a responsibility towards the government in the following ways : 

1. To abide by the policies, rules and regulations framed by government. 

2. To operate the business according to government policies. 

3. To pay taxes and other duties fully, honestly and truly. 

4. To refrain from corrupting government machinery. 

5. To make full use of production capacity and license in the business. 

6. To use economic resources in national interest. 

7. To be cooperative in operation of national policies and national programmes, small savings, clean India, family welfare, etc.

Responsibilities of business units towards the public in general: 

i. Generate employment opportunities- Business units should provide employment opportunities to young, well-educated people in the society. This will increase the overall development and growth of the people. 

ii. Protect environment- It is the responsibility of business units to ensure pollution-free environment. Business units contribute to various types of pollution, including air, water and noise. So, they should take proper measures to ensure environment protection. 

iii. Indulge in social activities- Business units have the capability to improve the standard of living of people by constructing public gardens and public libraries and running charitable hospital and schools. Such social activities increase social welfare. 

iv. Locate industries in safe areas- Industries should be located in industrial and non-residential zones. This minimises the adverse effects of industries on residential areas and avoids congestion in cities. 

v. Development of weaker sections- Business units should provide help to the weaker sections of the society. Business units can provide financial and medical facilities to these sections.

Air transport has the following advantages:

i. It is the fastest mode of transport. 

ii. It is possible to reach remote and inaccessible parts of the world using air transport. 

iii. It becomes indispensable for business travel and defence purposes.  

Responsibilities of a business towards its owners: 

i. As owners and shareholders invest their money in a business, it is the responsibility of the business enterprise to safeguard their investments and provide them fair and timely returns. 

ii. Business organisations should provide complete and accurate information about their progress and financial position to their owners. This can be done through reports, statement of profits, etc. 

iii. It is the responsibility of business organisations to minimise the wastage of resources so that maximum profits can be earned. 

iv. Business units should run the business efficiently. They should make maximum utilisation of the available resources, with no or minimum wastage.

The Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA) is responsible for regulating civil aviation in India. 

Its functions include :

i. Regulation of air transport services to/from/within India; 

ii. Registration of civil aircraft in India; 

iii. Licensing of pilots, aircraft maintenance engineers and flight engineers; 

iv. Licensing of aerodromes in India; 

v. Investigation into air accidents and incidents; 

vi. Implementation of bilateral air services agreements

When shares are issued to the general public, the minimum amount that must be subscribed by the public so that the company can ajlot shares to the applicants is termed as Minimum Subscription. As per the Company Act of 1956, the Minimum Subscription of share cannot be less than 90% of the issued amount. If the Minimum Subscription is not received, the company cannot allot shares to its applicants and it shall immediately refund the entire application amount received to the public.

When shares are issued to the general public, it is necessary that the minimum subscription amount should be subscribed so that the company can allot shares to the applicants. This minimum amount of share subscription is termed as minimum subscription. As per the Company Act 1956, the minimum subscription of share cannot be less than 90% of the issued amount. If the minimum subscription is not received, the company cannot allot shares to its applicants and it shall immediately refund the entire application amount received to the public. 

e.g., if a company issued 1,00,000 equity share than at least 90,000 share must be subscribed by the public.

Minimum subscription is the amount received from shareholders which is sufficient from the  point of view of directors’ for following purposes:

(a)  For purchasing necessary assets of the company.

(b)  For paying preliminary expenses and commission on sales of shares.

(c) For paying loan if arranged for above two purposes.

(d)  For working capital and for any other purposes which the directors agree upon.

The amount obtained from the asset the use of that income will be for a specific reason given by donor and the principle asset will remain same means that will not use.

Employees stock option plan is the right granted to the employees of the company to purchases the shares lower than the market prices. It is worth mentioning the options provide a right and not the obligation to buy shares. It means that the employees under this plan are not necessarily required to purchase the shares. It is their wish to buy or not.

It is needed throughout the world whether it is India, America or Japan.

The role of human resource management is the process of acquiring, training, appraising, and compensating employees. 

The significance of human resource management is given below:

1. To identify manpower needs: Determination of manpower needs in an organisation is very important as it is a form of investment. 

2. To ensure the correct requirement of manpower: At any time the organisation should not suffer from shortage or surplus manpower which is made possible through human resource management 

3. To select right man for right job: Human resource management ensures the right talent to select the right employee for the right job. 

4. To update the skill and knowledge: Human resource management enables employees to remain up-to-date through training and development programmes. 

5. To appraise the performance of employees: Periodical appraisal of performance of employees through human resource management activities boosts up good performers and motivates slow performers..

Object-oriented programming (OOP) is a programming language model, organized around objects” rather than “actions” and data rather than a logic of the program.

Correct option is (B) Stock turnover

Correct option is (b) It maximises the output and satisfaction of the employees.

OOP means Object-Oriented Programming.

Object-oriented programming (OOP) is a programming language model organized around “objects” rather than “actions” and data rather than logic of the program.

An object is a combination of code and data that can be treated as a unit. An object can be considered any real-time entity (existing thing) that can perform a set of related activities.

Correct option is (c) Peter Drucker and Douglas McGregor

Correct option is (b) job specification

A class is simply a representation of a type of object. It is the blueprint/ plan/ template that describes the details of an object.

The OOP follows Bottom-up approach of programming.