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Changes that occur quite often with change in season are called seasonal changes.

Correct option is (D) Non-economic goods

Correct option is (B) Fall

The worth of a commodity in terms of other commodities, or in terms of money i.e. price is called value of that commodity.

Correct option is (B) Hawtrey

Correct option is (B) 4

Economic goods and non-economic goods:
(a) Economic goods:

• Goods which have an exchange value in the market are called economic goods.
• Such goods command an exchange value since they are scarce in supply compared to their demand. Moreover their supply can be controlled.
• Example: All goods such as metal, sugar, electronics, books, etc.

(b) Non-economic goods:

• Goods which do not have exchange value are called non-economic goods. Such goods are abundant in supply.
• Though these goods are consumed by people they do not pass through the economic process of production and distribution.
• Example: Sunlight and air.

Correct option is (B) Should be available in abundance

Correct option is (C) Short run regular changes

Changes that occur accidentally in an economic activity are called irregular changes.

Correct option is (C) Land

1. Irregular changes,
2. Seasonal changes,
3. Long run changes and
4. Cyclical changes.

Wealth is something which is useful, scarce, capable of getting exchanged, and can only be owned by somebody.

Correct option is (D) Alfred Marshall

The agents that help in a process of conversion or production are called ‘Factors of Production’. There are four factors of production. They are:

1. Land
2. Labour
3. Capital and
4. Entrepreneur.

Land:
According to Marshall, all natural assets which help in production or in economic activities constitute land. As per this definition, climate, water resources, fertility, mineral resources, etc. all these natural assets help in production and hence constitute land.

Characteristics of land:

• Land is not manmade. It is a gift of nature.
• The total supply of land is fixed.
• Land is immobile.
• Each type of land has different fertility, experiences different climatic conditions, etc.
• The remuneration of land as a factor of production is called ‘rent’.

1. Land is not manmade. It is a gift of nature.
2. The total supply of land is fixed.

Production:

• The activity of converting raw materials and resources into final goods which satisfy human wants is called production.
• By converting the nature of resources, their utility increases. In this sense, production can also be defined as a process which increases utility of resources.

Example:
When wood (a resource) is converted into chairs its utility increases. The process of converting wood into chair is called production.

Factors of production:

• The agents that help in a process of conversion or production are called ‘Factors of Production’. There are four factors of production. They are:
  1. Land
  2. Labour
  3. Capital and
  4. Entrepreneur.
• All these factors are equally important in the process of production.
• In a system of just (fair) distribution of income, the total income generated from various activities is distributed among each factor of production as per the productivity of each factor or its contribution in generating that income.
• As per Alfred Marshall, there are two basic categories of factors of production
  1. Nature and
  2. Human beings.

• We often use the words ‘price’ and ‘value’ in our daily life. Most of the times we use both these words alternatively but to represent the same meaning.
• For example, we make statements like, ‘this jeans is expensive’, ‘this watch is valuable’, ‘this shoe has a high price’. When these statements are made they are made without differentiating between price and value. This is so because generally, a person believes price and value to be the same.
• In economics, the concept of price and value are different and so it is necessary to understand the concept of value.

Value:
The worth of a commodity in terms of other commodities, or in terms of money i.e. price is called value of that commodity.

Value can be explained from two viewpoints. They are:

1. From viewpoint of use i.e. ‘use-value’
2. From viewpoint of exchange i. e. ‘exchange-value’.

Price:

• If a commodity is exchanged for money then such monetary exchange-value is termed as ‘price’.
• Price means the exchange-value (or worth) of a commodity measured in terms of units of currency.

The physical or intellectual work done by humans under supervision by some authority in order to earn returns is called labour.

1. Labour and labourer cannot be separated from each other.
2. Labour cannot be stored.

Labour:
The physical or intellectual work done by humans under supervision by some authority in order to earn returns is called labour.

Characteristics of labour:

• Labour and labourer cannot be separated from each other.
• Labour cannot be stored. So, we can say that labour i.e. effort done by a labourer is perishable.
• The mobility of labour is influenced by social and economic reasons.
• The efficiency of every labourer is different. This means that the capacity of every labourer to perform labour is different.
• The supply of labour depends upon population.
• The remuneration for labour is called ‘wages’.

Correct option is (C) Capital

There are four factors of production namely land, labour, capital and entrepreneur.

• Entrepreneur is the factor which brings together or say coordinates all other factors of production for the production process.
• Without entrepreneur, economic activity is not possible.
• Entrepreneur is the person who establishes the enterprise and takes the risk of coordinating economic activities.
• This factor of production i.e. the entrepreneur does not get fixed return but tries to generate income by running the economic activity successfully.
• He/she may even incur a loss if the activity does not function well.
• Thus, entrepreneur is called the risk taking factor of production (or possesses the quality of co-ordination.)

Correct option is (B) Interest

Many of the voters are less interested or uninterested in the election procedure. They feel that whoever may be the winners, the living conditions of the voters remain the same. So many eligible voters did not vote.

Refer answer 

(1) In Improve your learning.

Answer is (C) 40

It shows the confidence of people in elections and also the pattern of voting. So it is important.

To maintain the self-confidence in the voters, the voting should be secret.

The main characteristics of European Railways are: 

1. Latest technology is used in constructing European railways. 

2. It has double ways and electrification has been done everywhere. 

3. Metro – railways are found in European railways. 

4. The rail routes pass through all major cities and industrial areas. 

5. European railways connect all Metropolitan cities like London, Paris, Brussels, Milan, Berlin, Warsaw, etc. to one another. 

6. The Euro Tunnel railways connect London to Paris.

High density of railways is seen in the following two regions of South America: 

1. Pampas region in Argentina. 

2. The coffee plantation region in Brazil.

40% of total railways of South America is found in these two regions. After Argentina and Brazil, Chile stands third in railways, which connects internal areas of the country to the regions where mining is done on large scale. These are comparatively smaller and single route rail lines in Peru, Bolivia, Equador, Columbia, and Venezuela. In South America, there is Pan – Continental railways which goes to Valley of Usplata situated at the height of 3900 meter in the Andes mountain range and then connects Buenos Ares in Argentina to Valparaiso.

Japan, China and India have the most dense railways in Asia.

Pampas grassland of Argentina and the coffee producing region of Brazil are the two regions where railways are most important.

D) Lok Adalat

(i) The central part of the district has dense network of transport routes.

(ii) The central part of the district has lower and medium elevation as compared to the Western part.

(iii) The transport network is sparse in the Eastern part of the district.

(iv) The region with sparse network of transport . routes is comparatively of lower and medium elevations.

(v) The Western region lacks transport routes.

(vi) Sahyadri Mountains and Shivsagar reservoir of Koyna dam are the obstructions found here.

Eastern USA and Western Europe.

Tourism was done for health benefits. 

Example: Yoga, Meditation, etc.

These are in Kojan and Tutukundi in Tamil Nadu, Satpari in Maharashtra, Kochi in Kerala, Visakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh and Vera in Gujarat.

Paris and Istanbul.

Increasing population, urbanization, industrialization and lack of general awareness among common people are causing this decline.

Major tree species are: Sagwaan, Sal, Shisham, Rosewood, Kusum, Bamboo, Palash, Harar, Behri amla, Haldu, Ebony, Mango, Jamun, Sirus, Mahua, Pipal and Banyan, Khair, Semal and Gular.

In India, according to the new forest policy, there should be forest cover on 33% of total land part, but upto 2015 only 21.34% land part was under the forests cover.

Main causes of decreasing forest area in India: 

Following are the causes:

1. Growth of continuous demand of agricultural land: For sustenance of rapidly growing population of India, the need to increase food grain production is felt. For the expansion of agricultural land, forests are being cleared on large scale, and consequently, the forest area is decreasing. 

2. Rapid industrialization and urbanization: After independence, for industrialization and urbanization, industrial buildings, residential colonies, commercial area, offices, administrative blocks, roads and railway tracks were made. Recently Many Express and Super Express Ways Airports etc. are being constructed for fast development work. For these, forests were cleared in past and are being cleared in present time on large scale. 

3. Deforestation for domestic use: Deforestation is being done for furniture, building construction etc. 

4. Uncontrolled grazing: Due to uncontrolled grazing, small plants and grasses are eaten up and destroyed by the animals hooves. It causes soil erosion which is a major cause of deforestation.

5. Shifting agriculture: In India, shifting agriculture is being practiced by some tribes. In it, agricultural land is prepared by cutting and clearing the forests. Farming is done for 3 to 4 years on such land and this process is repeated elsewhere. Thus, forest areas are decreasing due to this traditional practice. 

6. Other causes: Development of multipurpose projects, increasing mining areas, violation of government rules and different diseases of plants 

Demerits of deforestation: 

Following are the demerits:are other causes.

1. Rainfall is reduced due to deforestation and aridity increases. 

2. Due to this, the industries based on forest are becoming destroyed and unemployment is increasing and national income is decreasing. 

3. Flow of river water increases and danger of flood and soil erosion increases. 

4. Underground water level decreases and shortage of fodder for animals appears. 

5. Results shortage of timber and fire wood. 6. Storms blow unobstructructed, causing soil erosion. Expansion of deserts increases. 

7. Carbon dioxide level rises in the atmosphere, thereby increasing the risk of global warming. 

8. Air pollution increases as a result of which humans have to face and suffer from many ailments. 

9. Forest destruction leads to ecological imbalance. 

10.There is widespread destruction of wildlife, many wildlife species have become extinct.

Lack of green fodder and nutritious food, lack of good breed, animal diseases, and ignorance and carelessness of animal rearers are the causes responsible for weak health position of animals in India.

Products obtained from animals in India: 

Following are the products:

1. In India, milk is obtained from animals on large scale and from milk, khoya, cheese, butter, buttermilk, ghee and milk powder are made. 

2. Compost is made from animal dung, urine and bones. 

3. Leather and wool is obtained from animals in India, which is used for making different useful things. 

4. At present, in India, almost 4000 slaughter houses are working in which billions of rupees of meat and other meat products are produced. 

5. From the horns of animals, several decorative things are made.

Cause of weak health of animals in India: In India, the animals give less milk and meat. Following four factors are responsible for it:

1. Lack of healthy food and green fodder: Due to large population, food grains are chiefly grown in India while the farmers pay little heed to production of green fodder. Besides, there is lack of green pastures. That is why the farmers do not feed their cattle sufficient and nutritious diet. Consequently, the animals grow weak and give less milk and meat. 

2. Lack of good breed: Animals of good breed are not available in India. Although the government is opening animal reform centers, breeding centers and medical centers in villages, yet desired results are not coming. 

3. Diseases of animals: Due to the unhealthy living atmosphere, polluted water and rotten things and living in touch with sick animals, several animals become ill. During rainy season, in different parts of India, animals die in large number due to infection in mouth, feet, poisoning, fever and infection of throat.

4. Ignorance and carelessness of animal rearers: In India, most of animal rearers rear animals in traditional way and they do not have knowledge of modern methods of animals rearing, besides, they are careless towards the health of animals. Although in some parts of India, modern dairies have been established.

Following are the areas: 

1. Balaghat (Malajkhand), Toregaon and Betul districts of Madhya Pradesh. 

2. Khetri and Singhana in Jhunjhunu district of Rajasthan. 

3. Singhbhum, Hazaribagh, Santhal paragana and Manbhoomi districts of Jharkhand.

In India canals, tubewells, wells and tanks are major sources of irrigation. Among these, maximum irrigation is done by tube wells and canals. In north India, irrigation is done by canals, wells and tubewells, while in south India, irrigation is done chiefly by tanks and canals.