Explore topic-wise InterviewSolutions in Current Affairs.

• Habeas corpus. 
• Prohibition. 
• Certiorari. 
• Oro – warrant.

Dr. Rajendra Prasad (President) & Dr. S. Radhakrishnan (Vice President).

Discretionary Powers: 

• The power to send back suggestions to the Cabinet for reconsideration. 
• President’s Veto power: Except the Finance Bill, the President can suspend of deny the Bills passed by the Parliament. 
• In the circumstances when no Party has a clear majority, the President, using his invite the leader of any party to form the government. Discretionary Powers, can

The Powers of the President are divided into many categories. 

a) Executive Powers: As the Head of the Nation, he appoints all the persons holding important posts. The PM, Union Ministers, Governors, Finance Commission, Union Public Service Commission, Election Commission, etc are appointed by him. He also appoints Diplomats, Comptroller, and the Auditor General. He also dismisses them when necessary.

b) Legislative Rights: The President is also part of the Legislature. He has the authority to summon the Parliament, to abrogate it, to address it and to dismiss the LokSabha (85* Article). He nominates Members to the Parliament, issues Ordinances. His prior permission is needed to introduce Bills regarding special subjects like formation of new States and Money Bills. The most important thing is that for any Bill to become Law, his signature is necessary.

c) Judicial Powers: According to Article 72, the President has the power to stop, reduce and even cancel sentences, including death sentence, given by courts, including military courts. He has the power to appoint Supreme Court and High Court judges.

d) Military Powers: The President is the Commander-in-Chief. The authority to appoint Heads of our Armed Forces is vested on him. All his powers as the Commander-in-Chief will be subject to the Laws passed by the Parliament. 

e) Emergency Powers: He has Emergency Powers to overcome any Emergency. The Constitution has envisaged three kinds of Emergencies. 

i) National Emergency (352): He can declare emergency if there is a war, foreign attack or armed revolution threatening the security of the country or any of its parts. Such emergency needs the ratification of the Parliament in a month and if it is to continue during every six months. When an emergency is in force, the Central Government will have complete control over the State Legislatures and Executives. Moreover, the fundamental rights of the citizens except those in articles 21 and 22 will be suspended. Three times such emergencies were declared (1962, 1971 and 1975).

ii) State Emergencies or President’s Rule (356): This means the President has the power to assume the administration of any State if he feels that the conditions there have become so bad that the State government can’t rule there as per the provision of the Constitution. For that, one of the following conditions must exist: As per article 356, the President gets a report from the State Governor or the State Government fails to carry out the instructions of the Central Government. The Ordinance imposing President’s Rule in any State must be approved by the Parliament in two months’ time. By getting approval from the Parliament after six months, the President’s rule can be extended up to a year.

iii) Economic Emergency: If the President feels that the economic stability of the country is threatened, he can declare an economic emergency. When such an emergency is in place, the entire economic matters will be under the Central Government’s control. Such an emergency has not been declared so far

A court which deals with the cases relating to the consumers who are cheated by the business class in the market is called consumer court.

A form of government in which absolute power is concentrated in a person or group is called dictatorial government.

Aristotle defines the state as “An Union of families and villages having for its end a perfect and self sufficient life, by which we mean a happy and honorable life”.

• According to Bluntschli,” The state is Politically Organized people. 
• According to Wilson, “The state is a people organized for law within a definite territory”. 
• According to Laski,” The state is a territorial society divided into government and subject, etc, claiming within its allotted physical area, a supremacy over all other institutions.

The above definitions show that there are four essential elements of state. 

• Population 
• Territory
• Government 
• Sovereignty.

a. Population: People are the most important essential of the state. If there are no people there will be nobody to rule and nobody to be ruled. A vacant island or desert can’t constitute a state. Hence, population is essential for state and without population there can be no state.

For Aristotle, number should be neither too large nor too small. It should be large enough to be self-sufficient and small enough to be well governed. The actual population is less than the optimum; the natural resources can’t be fully utilized. If it is more, poverty’ will be the result.

b. Territory: Territory is a definite area of earth surface where people reside permanently. We can’t think of a state without territory. The area within these boundaries constitutes the “Territorial Jurisdiction “of a state. There is no fixed limit to the size of territory, it may be generally laid down that there should be proper balance between population and territory. 

c. Government: For the peaceful existence gout is very much essential for a state. Government is the machinery, which regulates controls and directs human behavior in society. It is an agency of the state through which the will of the state is formulated, expressed and executed. 

The entire population of a political community makes a state. The gout is composed of few persons duly elected or selected. There are branches of government. They are legislature, executive and judiciary. The form of government differs from state to state.

d. Sovereignty: It means supreme power of the state. The term sovereignty derived from Latin word supreranus, which means supreme. There are two aspects of sovereignty I, e Internal and external sovereignty. Internal means supreme legal authority and group within its territory. External means freedom of state from any kind of outside control. It means Pot – Independence of state. Sovereignty is the most important element of the State.

In the unitary system of government, where all the powers and authority of the state is concentrated in the single Central government and the supreme power is exercised by it. 

Eg: 

England, France, Japan, etc.

The court which has been formed to safeguard the interests of consumer in the market is called consumer court

Apart from a President, India has a Vice President. He is chosen by the elected members of both Houses of the Parliament. His qualifications and duration of office are like that of the President. If the President’s post falls vacant somehow until it is filled the Vice President carries out the functions of the President. But this can’t last for more than six months. If the President can’t carry out his responsibility because of illness, ill health or absence, the Vice President carries out the responsibility of the President. Moreover the Vice President is the Chairman of the Rajya Sabha.

• Right to equality.
• Right to liberty. 
• Right against exploitation. 
• Right to freedom of religion. 
• Cultural and educational rights. 
• Right to constitutional remedies.

Distribution of constitutional powers from union level to village level is called democratic decentralization The importance of local governments is so paramount that it is called the “Primary school of democracy”.

1. ‘Welfare state: Modem states are welfare states. If the overall development of the state is to take place; the development of local governments is very vital. Because national progress can’t be divorced from rural progress.

2. Cradle of Democracy: A citizen, not aware of the working of democracy is a burden on the nation. In local governments people are introduced to functioning of democracy step by step and over a period of time they leam the nuances of democracy. Democracy can survive only when majority of the masses living in rural areas participate. That’s why; local governments are called “cradles of democracy”.

3. Power to the People: The other name of local government is power of the people; the local governments take power to the door steps of the people and empower them not only identify problems but also to solve them.

4. Knowledge of Administration: Local governments aim at imparting knowledge of administration to locals, though the local people are aware of the government, they are not aware of the working of administration. But when interacted with officials, due to proximity, they get working knowledge of administration.

5. Local Solutions: The basic principle of local government is, local problems must be solved at the local level. The centre or state government can’t understand local problems due to paucity of time, interest and information. But locals can, based on experience, identify suitable solutions to problems.

The legislature is the first organ of the government.

1. Must be a citizen of India 

2. Must attained the age of 35 years 

3. Must not hold any office of profit 

4. Must not be mad, lunatic and criminal

In the Parliamentary government, the position of the President is that of a respectful figure-head, representing the honor and dignity of the people of India. It has become a fashion to label the President as ‘a rubber stamp’, the impression is that he does nothing but signing bills brought before him. But there are occasions that offer scope for independent decisions. When no party enjoys a majority, the power to appoint Prime minister rests with the President (Article 75).

In case of sudden demise of Prime minister, if the party fails to elect its leader, at the earliest, President may appoint a person of his choice as the Prime minister. Importantly, if a government loses majority and recommends for the dissolution of the house (Lok sabha), it is purely power of the President to dissolve the parliament or not (Article 85).The powers and functions of the President are as follows:

1. Legislative Functions: The legislative functions are detailed below:

a. To summon, prorogue and dissolve the Parliament. 

b. The President enjoys the power to address the Parliament. It is normally done after general elections or the first session of the year. It is generally called Presidential speech. This inaugural speech outlines the objectives and priorities of the government. 

c. In passing the bills, if a dead lock arises due to non-agreement between two houses . of the parliament, the President may call for joint session of both the houses. 

d. The President may address Lok sabha or Rajya sabha or both any time and also may send a message to both the houses of parliament to look into a bill.

e. In the considered view of the President, if he is satisfied that the Anglo-Indian community is not adequately represented, he may nominate 12 members to Rajva Sabha and 2 members to Lok sabha. 

f. Prior permission of the President is essential while dealing with bills relating to formation of new states, alteration of boundaries and some special bills like the finance bills. 

g. No bill can become a law without the assent of the President. He enjoys the power to withhold a bill. This power is called ‘Veto power”. However he cannot refuse his assent for finance bills. But he can withhold assent for a non money bill. But if the same is resubmitted for signature even without changes, he cannot refuse to sign it.

h. The President enjoys the power of issuing Ordinance when the parliament is not in session. It will have the same power and effect similar to that of a law made by the Parliament provided the same is ratified by the Parliament within 6 weeks of its passage. Otherwise it ceases to be a law and is considered null and void or zero.

2. Executive Functions: The President is the administrative Head of the State and orders are executed in his name. Article 53 clearly states that the executive powers of the State must be vested in ‘the hands of the President’.

• All accords and agreements carried out on behalf of the Government of India is done in the name of the President. 
• The President has the power to call for any information from the government. 
• The President appoints the Prime minister and the Council of minister on recommendation of the Prime minister. 
• The highest constitutional functionaries such as Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG), Chief Election Commissioner (CEC), Chief Vigilance Commissioner (CVC) are appointed by the President.
• The member of the Union Public Service Commission (UPSC), National Human Right Commission (NHRC), Backward Class Commission (BCC) and National Commission for Women (NCW) are appointed by the President. 
• The President enjoys the power of removing highest constitutional functionaries.The President can call for reports from Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Commission, Linguistic Minorities Commission (LMC), Backward Class Commission (BCC) and other commissions.

3. Financial powers:

• It is the constitutional obligation of the President to see that the annual income expenditure statement. The budget is placed before the Parliament for approval. 
• Financial bills cannot be presented in the Parliament without the consent of the President. 
• The recommendation of the Finance Commissions and the Planning Commission are placed before the Parliament on orders of the President. 
• The members of the Finance Commission and Planning Commission are appointed by the President.

4. Judicial Powers: 

a. The President enjoys the power of pardoning the sentence of a person declared an offender by the Supreme Court. He is so powerful that he can reduce change or altogether cancel the punishment. This power is called Presidential Pardon. This is provided to ensure any miscarriage of justice (Article 72).

b. The Judges of the Supreme Court and High court are appointed by the President in consultation with the Chief Justice of India. 

c. The President is entitled to legal advice on matters relating to the constitutional clarity of bills. However, it is not binding on the President to accept it.

5.Military Powers: President is the Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces. President has the power to declare war or peace, but parliamentary approval is essential for such a decision. The President can raise funds for training and preservation of armed forces with prior approval of the Parliament. The Chiefs of Army, Navy, and Air force are appointed by the President.

6. Diplomatic Powers: 

a. The diplomatic powers of the President are purely symbolic in nature. The President represents the country in international affairs. His visits are of courtesy nature aimed at strengthening bilateral relations; he does not sign any treaties or agreements.

b. The ambassadors representing the country abroad are appointed by the President. 

c. The foreign ambassadors are received by the President. No person can be considered an ambassador unless he is given the ‘Letter of Accreditation’ by the president.

7. Emergency Powers: The emergency powers of the President are enumerated in the constitution from Article 352 to Article 360. The President may declare emergency under three circumstances:

a. The President may declare internal emergency under Article 352, if, in his opinion, there is a threat to India’s security due to war or external aggression.

b. The President may impose ‘President’s Rule’ under Article 356 if he is convinced that in that particular state the law and order has completely deteriorated and it cannot be governed as per the constitution. Though the President’s rule is imposed on the recommendation of the governor of the concerned state, it is not compulsory.

c. If the President is convinced that the financial stability and prestige of the nation is at risk, he may impose financial emergency under Article 360.

However, the imposition of internal and financial emergency should be placed before Parliament and its consent taken within 2 months of the declaration of emergency, otherwise, it is considered invalid.

The presiding officer of Loksabha is the Speaker who is elected from among the members along with the Deputy Speaker and stays in office till the life of the House i.e., 5 years. His primary task is to protect the dignity and decorum of the House and to see that the proceed-ings of the House are conducted in an orderly and a focused manner. He is the principal spokesperson of the House and must be impartial and even-handed in dealing as the custo-dian of the House.

In order to ensure impartiality, speaker resigns his party membership on election. The Deputy speaker discharges the duty when the office of the speaker falls vacant due to resignation, death or removal by a 2/3 majority of the total membership of the House or in the absence of the speaker. Salary of the speaker is determined by parliament from time to time.

The Speakers’ position in the House is one of dignity and authority:

• All orders of the house are executed through the Speaker 
• Communication from the President is made known through the Speaker. 
• It is the power of the speaker to declare whether a bill is Money bill or not. 
• He enjoys the authority of interpreting the Rules of procedure and has the power to vote except in case of a tie. 
• No member can speak in the House without the permission of the speaker and it is the speaker who fixes the time limit for speech. 
• He presides over the Joint sittings of the parliament. 
• During discussions, the members must address the Chair. 
• In case of a tie, speaker has the right to cast a vote. 
• Speaker’s decisions cannot be questioned in court of law.

The High Court consists of a Chief Justice and other judges appointed from time to time by the President. The President may appoint additional judges for a temporary period of two years if the work is heavy in the High court. He may also appoint a acting judge when a permanent judge is temporarily absent.

The following are the powers of the High court:

1. Protection of Fundamental Rights: The constitution has granted 6 fundamental rights to its citizens and it is also the responsibility of High courts to protect and defend them against legislative, executive or any other kind of encroachment. The High court may issue the writs. Habeas Corpus, Mandamus, Prohibition, Certiorari and Quo-Warranto, to protect the people against violation of fundamental rights (Article 226). The writ jurisdiction of the high court also extends to the violation of legal rights as well.

2. Original Jurisdiction: The High courts of the Presidencies of Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay had original jurisdiction both on civil and criminal matters within the limits of the presidencies. However, the original criminal jurisdiction has now been completely taken over by the Criminal Procedure Code (CPC) of 1973. But, the original civil jurisdiction has been retained in matters of higher value.

3. Appellate Jurisdiction: The appellate jurisdiction of the High courts can be studied under two heads:

a. Civil cases: The civil cases may go to the High court on either first appeal or second appeal. The appeal from the decisions of District judges and subordinate judges may go directly to the high court in cases of higher value on questions of fact as well as law. And also, when a court below the High court decides a case from the decision of an inferior court, the case can come to the high court on second appeal only on question of law and procedure.

b. Criminal cases: The High Court can take up criminal cases on appeal in two cases.

• A person can appeal against the decision of a Sessions Judge or an Additional Sessions Judge in a case where the punishment is an imprisonment exceeding seven years. ‘ 
• Against the decisions of an Assistant Sessions Judge or other Judicial Magistrates in certain special cases other than petty cases. 

4. Power of Superintendence: The High court has the power to supervise all courts and tribunals under its territorial limits and to see that the courts discharge duty according to laws of the constitution. The high court may also issue general rules regarding the administration of laws. Supervisory power also gives the authority to intervene in case of any grave injustice or abuse of jurisdiction. 

5. Transfer of Cases: The High Court if satisfied that a case pending in a subordinate court involves a substantial question of law related to the interpretation of the constitution, might transfer the case to itself and decide the case as well.

6. Court of Records: Like the Supreme Court, the high court is also the court of record whose judgments and decisions cannot be questioned by any court of law below the rank of the high court. It has the power to correct and punish itself.

7. Contempt of Court: An individual or the government if violates the orders of the High court, it may impose fine or imprisonment for showing disrespect to its orders.

8. Control over Subordinate Courts: The High court exercises control over the subordinate judiciary in the state.

a. The District Judges are appointed posted and promoted by the Governor in consultation with the concerned High court.

b. The members of the judicial service of the state are appointed by the Governor in consultation with the High court and the members of the Public Service Commission. 

c. It is the authority of the High court to decide on posting, promotion, and grant of these judicial officers holding any post below that of a District judge.

9. Control over the Establishment: The Chief Justice of a High Court is given the power of appointing officers and servants of the court for efficient discharge of judicial duties (Article 229). He may suspend or dismiss any official who does not follow the rules of the court.

The III Part of the constitution of India has guaranteed seven fundamental rights. But the 44^th Amendment Act of 1978 deleted 6th fundamental right; right to property. Now it remains only a legal right. All the fundamental rights come under articles from 12 to 35. These rights are explained as under.

1. Right to Equality: (14 to 18) Article 14 confers on all the citizens’ equality before law and equal protection of law. Article 15 prohibits any discrimination by the state towards its citizens on grounds of race, religion, caste, gender, and place of birth. The same article throws open public places, like shops, wells, restaurants, etc. to all citizens.

Article 16 provides for equality in matters of public employment. No one shall be dis-criminated on the grounds of race, religion, caste, gender, place of birth and residence. But the state may discriminate in favor of Backward classes of citizens by reserving jobs in the Government.

Article 17 prohibits the practice of untouchability in any form. Those who practice it will be severely punished. Article 18 prohibits the state from conferring titles like Rao Bahadur, His Highness, etc, on its citizens. However, it may award military or civil distinction like Paramavir Chakra, Bharat Ratna, Padma Bhushan, Padmashree.

2. Right to Freedom (19 to 22) Article 19 gives 6 freedoms to the citizens of India. Such as:

1. freedom of speech and expression. 

2. Assemble peacefully without arms. 

3. Form associations. 

4. Move freely within the country, 

5. to reside and settle down in any part of the country. 

6. To practice any profession or trade.

Article 20: lays down Right to personal Life and Liberty.

• No person shall be arrested when the law is not in operation. 
• No person shall be punished more than once for the same offense, 
• No person shall be forced to give evidence against himself.

Article 21: No person shall be deprived of his life and liberty except according to the procedure established by law. The punishment shall be enforced only when he is pun-ished.

Article 22: Preventive Detention – it provides safeguards to persons under arrest.They are:

• 22 (1) the person arrested shall be informed on the grounds of his arrest as soon as possible. 
• 22 (2) the person arrested shall be produced before the nearest magistrate within 24 hours of his arrest. He shall not be denied the right to consult and be defended by a lawyer.
• 22 (3) preventive detention shall not be applicable to the person who has been arrested according to law. 
• 22 (4) the person who has been arrested shall not be detained in custody more than 3 months. 
• 22 (5) the person who has been arrested and detained in custody shall be informed of the ground of his a arrest, 
• 22 (6) to inform the ground of arrest against the public interest shall be informed, 
• 22 (7) with the approval of the parliament the detention period shall be extended more than 3 months.

3. Right against Exploitation (23 to 24): 

Article 23:prohibits traffic in human beings and forced labour. Selling of women in to prostitution is prohibited.

Article 24: prohibits employment of children below 14 years of age in factories and mines which is of hazardous nature.

4. Right to Religion (25 to 28):

Article 25: Every citizen has the right to profess, propagate and practice any religion as he pleases subject to public peace and morality.

Article 26: Every religious group shall establish institutions for charitable and religious purpose and manage its internal affairs arid acquire property.

Article 27: State shall not collected taxes for the maintenance of any particular religion or religious institution.

Article 28: no religions instructions shall be given in the government or aided educational institutions.

5. Cultural and educational rights(29 to 30) : 

Article 29: Every citizen has the right to protect the culture and script of his choice.

Article 30: gives the right to any cultural group or minority community to run an educational institution and the government shall not make any discrimination while making grants.

6. Right to constitutional Remedies(32):

it protects the citizens against encroachment of his rights. Dr. B. R. Ambedkar said that this right is “the heart and soul of the constitution”. Every citizen has the right to move to the court if his rights are encroached by anybody. 

(1) The Supreme Court is empowered to issue writs of Habeas Corpus, Mandamus, Prohibition, Quo-Warranto and Certiorari.

Article 226: High Court can also issue writs for the enforcement of fundamental rights. This right is regarded as the custodian of all the rights.

The business of the house cannot be conducted unless there is the requisite quorum of 1/10 of the total membership of the house is called a quorum.

In order to ensure independence of judicial system in India, the following steps have been taken so that the judicial officers are not under pressure in discharging their duties.

a. The Constitution has made it obligatory on the part of the President to consult the Chief Justice of India in appointing a judge of Supreme Court. This not only makes the appointment non-political but also saves judiciary from the influence of the executive (the council of ministers).

b. A judge of the Supreme Court cannot be removed from office by the President at his will, but on a motion passed by a two-third majority of the total membership of either house addressed to him. Thus, the legislative control over the executive ensures judicial independence.

c. A judge of the Supreme Court, though appointed by the President on the advice of the council of ministers, does not hold office during the pleasure of the President, but based on good behavior. He can be removed only on charges of proven misbehavior or incapacity by a motion addressed to the President by the Parliament.

d. The salaries and allowances of the judges of the Supreme Court are determined by a law of parliament and is not subject to discussion. The salary and allowances of the judges cannot be reduced or varied to his disadvantage during his term of office. This means that he will not be in any way affected by any law made by the parliament since the day of his appointment.

f. A judge of the Supreme Court is not permitted to practice in any court in India after retirement. This prevents him from falling prey to temptations. To boost accountability in the judicial system, the Central Information Commission (CIC) has brought the office of the Chief Justice under the purview of the Right to Information Act (RTI).

1. The power and position of Prime minister is so powerful that he is referred to as The first among equals (primus intersperes). Lord Morley regards Prime minister as “the keystone of the cabinet arch.” Former British Prime Minister Harold Wilson considered Prime Minister as “a person who conducts an orchestra without using any instrument”. The greatest ever British Prime minister R.A.Butler once said, “A Prime minister must be a good butcher, and know all the joints….”

2. Article 74 of the constitution states that “there shall be a Council of ministers headed by the Prime Minister for the Union of India”. The Prime minister is elected from among the members of the majority party in Lok sabha. In case no party enjoys majority it is left to the discretion of the President to pick the Prime minister, who in his opinion will prove majority in a stipulated time.

3. Traditionally, the Prime minister should be from Loksabha. Some scholars compare the Prime minister to the Sun because complete administration revolves around him. B. R. Ambedkar compares the powers of Prime minister to that of the President of U.S.A.

4. The success or failure of a Prime minister largely depends upon the personality besides administrative knowledge and experience. For example, Nehru was known for his magnetic personality, Shastri for his soft spoken, but firm nature, Mrs. Gandhi for ‘never forget or forgive enemies’ attitude and Rajiv Gandhi was progressive but parasitic. P. V. Narasimha Rao always regarded not making any decision as the best decision, where as Vajpayee was emotional.

As organ which enforces the laws and implement the policies of the government is called executive. It is a 2nd organ of the government.

1. Rule implementation: Rule making and rule implementation are two faces of the same coin. Good laws, if not properly implemented has no relevance. The executive plays an important role in reaching the laws to the people.

2. Concept of welfare state: Modem states are welfare states involving in every sphere of human activity. With ever widen ing scope of the government activity, the role of the executive has also increased many-fold. 

3. Symbol of national prestige: The executive reflects the prestige of a nation. A resourceful and visionary executive can work wonders for people and the country.

Dr. B.R. Ambedkar.

The correct answer is the Peninsula.

• A Peninsula is an area of land that is surrounded by water from three sides.
• South India is a Peninsula shape of an inverted triangle bounded by the Arabian Sea on the west and the Bay of Bengal on the east along with the Indian Ocean in the south.
• Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Odisha, and West Bengal are the Indian states which lie in the peninsular region.

• A strait is a narrow channel of water that joins two water bodies and separates two landmasses.
• Isthmus is a narrow piece of land act as a separator between the two water bodies.

The Standing committees of Pura Sabha are 

• Taxation, Finance and Appeal committee. 
• Basic health, Education and Social justice committee. 
• Tour planning and Improvement committee. 
• Accounts and Audit committee.

Financial Sources 

• Taxes on assets, water, professions, and advertisements. 
• Rents from markets, complexes, and other properties. 
• Grants and contributions from the State government. 
• Income collected for providing drainage and sanitary facilities. 
• Loans raised from the public with government approval. 

All the adult citizens can exercise their voting power without the discrimination of caste, creed, colour, religion is called adult franchise 

The power and position of Prime minister is so powerful that he is referred to as The first among equals (primus intersperses). Lord Morley regards Prime minister as “the keystone of the cabinet arch.” Former British Prime Minister Harold Wilson considered Prime Minister as “a person who conducts an orchestra without using any instrument”. The greatest ever British Prime minister R.A.Butler once said. ” A Prime minister must be a good butcher, and know all the joints….”

Article 74 of the constitution states that “there shall be a Council of ministers headed by the Prime Minister for the Union of India”. The Prime minister is elected from among the members of the majority party in Lok sabha. In case no party enjoys majority it is left to the discretion of the President to pick the Prime minister, who in his opinion will prove majority in a stipulated time.

Traditionally, the Prime minister should be from Loksabha. Some scholars compare the Prime minister to the Sun because complete administration revolves around him. B. R. Ambedkar compares the powers of Prime minister to that of the President of U.S.A The success or failure of a Prime minister largely depends upon the personality besides administrative knowledge and experience.

For example, Nehru was known for his magnetic personality, Shastri for his soft-spoken, but firm nature, Mrs. Gandhi for ‘never forget or forgive enemies’ attitude and Rajiv Gandhi was progressive but parasitic. P. V. Narasimha Rao always regarded not making any decision as the best decision, whereas Vajpayee was emotional.

According to Aristotle “A constitution is the way of life the state has chosen for itself’.

• Increase in temperature of water will increase the evaporation of water.
• Evaporation is the process where a liquid is converted into its vapour and removed from the evaporating surface.
• Energy is required to change the state of the molecules of water from liquid to vapour.
• An increase in the temperature can provide this energy.
• The driving force to remove water vapour from the evaporating surface is the difference between the water vapour pressure at the evaporating surface and that of the surrounding atmosphere.
• As the surface area of the evaporating surface increases, the rate of evaporation increases.
• Humidity also affects the rate of evaporation.
• As evaporation proceeds, the surrounding air becomes gradually saturated and becomes more humid.
• The process, hence, will slow down and might stop if the wet air is not transferred to the atmosphere (decrease in the humidity of the air).
• The replacement of the saturated air with drier air depends greatly on wind speed.
• Hence, surface area, temperature, humidity and wind speed are factors affecting the evaporation process.

• Seawater, water that makes up the oceans and seas, covering more than 70 per cent of Earth’s surface. Seawater is a complex mixture of 96.5 per cent water, 2.5 per cent salts, and smaller amounts of other substances, including dissolved inorganic and organic materials, particulates, and a few atmospheric gases.
• Seawater constitutes a rich source of various commercially important chemical elements. Much of the world’s magnesium is recovered from seawater, as are large quantities of bromine. In certain parts of the world, sodium chloride (table salt) is still obtained by evaporating seawater. Magnesium is present in seawater in amounts of about 1300 ppm. After sodium, it is the most commonly found cation in oceans. 
• Calcium is one of the most common elements found in seawater. Inputs of dissolved calcium (Ca2+) to the ocean include the weathering of calcium sulfate, calcium silicate, and calcium carbonate, basalt-seawater reaction, and dolomitization
• Seawater contains approximately 400 ppm calcium. One of the main reasons for the abundance of calcium in water is its natural occurrence in the earth's crust.

NOTE- Ferrous oxide, commonly known as iron(II) oxide contains iron that lost 2 elections in the oxidation process. So it is able to bond with other atoms that have an extra 2 electrons to share. Iron(III) oxide is insoluble in water but dissolves readily in strong acid, e.g. hydrochloric and sulfuric acids. It is not found in Oceans.

The state should treat all religions equally and provide opportunities equally is called secular sate.

One of the most popular and familiar leader of a state which is also called as local politician is siddaramaiah. He is a leader of Backward class and Ahinda organisation. Mr. Siddaramaiah after assuming the power as chief Minister of Karnataka implemented so many plans and programmes for the welfare of depressed class and backward class. His main programmes are Anna Bhagya. 

Ksheera Bhagya, Shaadi Bhagya, Arogya Bhagya, Anila Bhagya, Maatru Pooma Scheme, manaswini scheme, mythri scheme, All these schemes are relatede to below poverty line, farmers, minorities, farmers and sexual minorities. Siddaramaiah has taken drastic decision to uplift the Ahinda community expecially minorities in the society. He waived the crops loans of farmers recently.

The discretionary powers of the Governor are as follows:

1. In appointing the Chief Minister if no party enjoys majority it is left to the discretion of the Governor to call any person to form the government and prove his majority. 

2. On the recommendation of the Chief Minister, Governor can sack any minister (Article! 64). 

3. If the Governor believes that the government has lost majority or if the Chief Minister having lost majority does not resign or if the government is using unethical means for political gains, under these circumstances he can dissolve the Council of ministers. (‘Article 174).

4. The Governor can return a bill back to legislature for reconsideration. 

5. The Governor can reserve certain bills passed by the state legislature for consideration of the President (Article 200). 

6. Before issuing an ordinance, the Governor can receive directions from the President. 

7. If the Governor is satisfied that a situation has arisen in which the government cannot be run according to provision of the constitution he may request the President to take over the state administration under Article 356. This is called President’s rule’. The report sent by the Governor to President must be kept confidential from the Council of ministers.

Duty is an obligation; something that we owe to others.

Salient Features of the Indian Constitution are: The constitution of India came into force on 26^th January 1950. The preamble enumerates the source, the nature and high aims and ideals of the constitution. The^preamble cannot be enforced in a court of law it is a grand declaration.

The following are the salient features of the constitution of India: 

1. Detailed and Written Constitution: The constitution of India is a comprehensive document. It is detailed and lengthy constitution in the world. It consists of 445 Articles, 22 parts, 12 schedules, and 100 Amendments. The bulk of the constitution is due to many reasons. Such as :

• It contains the broad principles and details of administration. 
• The constitution provides for the administrative machinery at the centre and also in the States.
• Incorporation of Fundamental rights and directive principles of state policy. 
• Special provision for safe guarding the interest of the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes,
• TJPSC and SPSC and Election Commission, Independent Judiciary, 
• Official languages and regional languages etc. have been dealt with in the constitution.

2. Sovereign, Democratic, Republic: The constitution of India is Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, Democratic and Republic.

• India is sovereign state and it is subject to no other authority either in her internal affairs or external relations. Its power is absolute internally and externally within its sphere. , 
• 42 Amendment Act of 1976 declares India to be a socialist state. 
• Preamble to the constitution declares that India is a sovereign democratic Republic. The President of India is elected and his term of office is five years.

3. Single Citizenship: The constitution of India has established single and uniform citizenship for the whole of the country. Single citizenship implies that all Indian citizens owe allegiance to the Indian Union. Any citizen, irrespective of his birth or residence, is entitled to enjoy civil and political rights throughout India In all states and Union Territories.

4. Fundamental Rights: Part III of the Indian constitution embodies six fundamental Rights, which are guaranteed to the people of India. These rights are sacred and sacrosanct and cannot be violated. The constitution makes the Supreme Court and the High Courts, the guardian of rights and liberties of the people. However, they are not absolute. The constitution imposes necessary limitations and the rights can be suspended under conditions of grave emergency.

1. Right to Equality. 

2. Right to Freedom. 

3. Right against Exploitation. 

4. Right to Religion. 

5. Cultural and Educational Rights. 

6. Right to Constitutional Remedies.

5. Fundamental Duties: The 42^nd Amendment Act of 1976 has incorporated ten duties for every Indian citizen.

• To abide by the constitution and respect its ideals, institutions, the flag and the National Anthem. 
• To cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspire our national struggle for freedom. 
• To uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India. 
• To defend the country and render national services when called upon to do so. 
• To promote harmony and sprit of common brotherhood among all the people of India. 
• To value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture. 
• To protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wild life and to have compassion for living creatures.
• To develop the scientific temper, humanism and the script of inquiry and reform. 
• To safeguard public-property and to adjure violence.
• To strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collection activity.

6. Secular and Socialist State: At the time of drafting the constitution the framers did not have the vision to mention these words in the preamble of the constitution. 

But these words were added in the preamble by 42^nd Amendment Act of 1976. Accordingly, India is a secular and non-religious character In fact it does not identify itself with any religion. India is neither religious, nor irreligious, nor anti-religious but it is detached from religious dogmas and activities. The aim of the constitution is too make India a socialist state on the basis of welfare programs.

7. Backward Classes and Minorities: The constitution protects the interest of the backward class and the Minorities. 

8. Official language: Hindi is laid as the official language of India. A common official language symbolized the unity of the country. 

9. Directive principles of State Policy: It is another important feature of the Indian constitution. It contains various aims and aspirations to the fulfilled by the state. They are instruments of instructions to the government to follow specific polices.

10. Parliamentary System of Government: The Indian constitution proposed a parliamentary system of government for India. 

11. Federation with strong centre: the constitution has laid down a federal form of government; with a Union of the states. The Union is more powerful than the states. 

12. Independent Judiciary: The judiciary under the constitution is made independent of the legislature and the executive. It protects the fundamental rights and safeguards the provisions of the constitution. In fact, it is the guardian of the constitution and protector of Fundamental Rights.

13. Judicial review: The Supreme Court of India has the power of judicial review. It can declare laws enacted by the parliament and state legislatures and orders passed by the executive as invalid if found contrary of the provisions of the constitution.

14. Election Commission: The constitution provides for the establishment of Election Commission for the whole country. It conducts free and fair elections of the president, vice-president, members of parliament and state legislatures from time to time. It consists of one chief Election commissioner and two other Election commissioners who are appointed by the president of India for the period of 6 years.

15. Rigidity and flexibility: There is aunique procedure of constitutional amendment. Article 368 of the constitution deals with the amendment procedure: 

a. By simple majority: The creation of new states, creation or abolition of legislative council, etc. These can be amended by a simple majority in both the houses of the union parliament.

b. By half- simple and half-rigid method: The provisions such as citizenship, Fundamental Rights, Directive principles, etc., shall be amended by 2/3 majority of members present and voting in both houses of the parliament. 

c. By Rigid Method: The method of amending the constitution involves rigid procedure. Matters relating to the election and power’s of the president and powers of the Union and State government, Union judiciary, establishment of High Court, division of legislative powers, representation of states in Union Parliament, etc., can be amended by 2/3 majority members of both houses of the Union parliament and has to be ratified by not less than half of the state legislature.

16. Adult Franchise: Every person who is a citizen of India and who is are above 18 years of age irrespective gender is entitled to be registered as a voter.

17. Emergency provisions: the constitution of India envisages three types of emergencies which the president may proclaim in different critical situations. Such as:

a. National Emergency: Article 352 provides national emergency. If the president is satisfied that the security of India or any part thereof is threatened by war or external aggression or internal disturbance, he may issue a proclamation of emergency. But it must be laid before each house of parliament for approval.

b. Failure of constitutional machinery in the state: The president on the receipt of report from the Governor of a state if satisfied, that a situation has arisen in which the government of a state cannot be carried on in accordance with the provisions of the constitution, he Can proclaim state emergency. It is to be approved ‘ by each House of parliament within two months. But normally it remains for six months and can be continued for three years.

c. Financial Emergency: The president of India is satisfied that the financial stability of India are any part thereof is threatened he may proclaim financial emergency. It expires at the end of two months unless it is approved by the parliament.

18. Local self-Governments: A constitutional statue was given to local self governments in accordance with the 73^rd and 74^th constitutional amendments which were made in the year 1992 and came into force in 1993.

The Correct Answer is Underwater earthquakes.

• Tsunami's can occur when the seafloor suddenly deforms and displaces the overlying water vertically.
• Tectonic earthquakes are a special type of earthquake associated with earth's crustal deformation; when these earthquakes occur under the sea, the water above the deformed region is shifted from its equilibrium location.
• Waves are shaped as a displaced mass of water, which works under the influence of gravity, attempting to restore its balance.
• When wide areas of the seafloor rise or fall, a tsunami can be formed. Large vertical motions of the crust of the earth may occur at the boundary of the plate.
• Plates communicate along the borders that are called faults. Around the Pacific Ocean, for example, denser oceanic plates slide under continental plates in a mechanism known as subduction.
• Subduction earthquakes are especially successful in the generation of tsunamis.

Tsunami is a Japanese word with the English translation, "harbour wave."

Represented by two characters, the top character, "tsu," means harbor, while the bottom character, "nami," means "wave."

In the past, tsunamis were sometimes referred to as "tidal waves" by the general public, and as "seismic sea waves" by the scientific community.

The term "tidal wave" is a misnomer; although a tsunami's impact upon a coastline is dependent upon the tidal level at the time a tsunami strikes, tsunamis are unrelated to the tides.

Tides result from the imbalanced, extraterrestrial, gravitational influences of the moon, sun, and planets. The term "seismic sea wave" is also misleading. "Seismic" implies an earthquake-related generation mechanism, but a tsunami can also be caused by a nonseismic event, such as a landslide or meteorite impact.

Causes a Tsunami

• Subduction Zones are Potential Tsunami Locations
• Most tsunamis are caused by earthquakes generated in a subduction zone, an area where an oceanic plate is being forced down into the mantle by plate tectonic forces. The friction between the subducting plate and the overriding plate is enormous. This friction prevents a slow and steady rate of subduction and instead the two plates become "stuck."
• Accumulated Seismic Energy
• As the stuck plate continues to descend into the mantle, the motion causes a slow distortion of the overriding plate. The result is an accumulation of energy very similar to the energy stored in a compressed spring. Energy can accumulate in the overriding plate over a long period of time - decades or even centuries.
• Earthquake Causes Tsunami
• Energy accumulates in the overriding plate until it exceeds the frictional forces between the two stuck plates. When this happens, the overriding plate snaps back into an unrestrained position. This sudden motion is the cause of the tsunami - because it gives an enormous shove to the overlying water. At the same time, inland areas of the overriding plate are suddenly lowered.

A written constitution is one that has been deliberately written by the Constituent Assembly ExIndia.

Economic liberty means security and the Opportunity to find the earning of one’s daily bread. Individual should be free from constant fear of unemployment, underemployment, and starvation.

State has to provide all its citizens adequate means of livelihood. It implies democracy in industry that is in the absence of this liberty worker has to work at the behest of others. This is secured through economic liberty.

It exists in England.

d) Increase in unemployment

A state which provides the basic requirements to all the people from birth to death is called welfare state.

The term of office of the president of India is 5 years.

Write about the independence day celebration in your college. Independence day is an important national festival in all over India. Previous day all the students cleaned and decorated the college campus by the guidance of lecturers. They tied buntings and colour papers with colourful rangoli. On the independence day, guests are invited by the students with flowers. Our college principal presided over the function. 

Firstly national flag was hoisted by the chief guest with national anthem. One of the lecturers proposes welcome speech. Guests highlighted the values of the great ideal of our freedom fighters, cultural programmes attracted the students. Our principal delivers presidential address. One of the leaders of student proposes vote of thanks. Finally. sweets are distributed.

b) Mixing of diverse culture

Answer is b. 4 2 1 3

Man by nature is a social animal. He organized society to fulfill his needs and lead his life happily and comfortably.

The word Constitution is derived from the Latin word‘Constituere’ 

Vice – President Presides over the Rajyasabha.

The constitution of india came in to force on 26^th January 1950.