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Plant based bio-pesticides 

These are the plant derived naturally occurring phyto-chemical pesticides that control pests by various mechanisms with less or no harm to human beings and crop plants.

Three methods employed to dry the flowers and foliage: 

1. Hanging flowers and foliage to dry naturally: This is a very easy method to dry flowers and in this method, flowers are dried by tying them into small bundles and hanging them upside down in a warm and ventilated place away from direct sunlight, that is, in a cool dark area.

2. Drying flowers and foliage in a drying chamber (hot air drying): In this method, flowers and foliage are dried in a convection chamber that has a fan. The temperature should be maintained between 30 to 35 ^oC and this process takes many hours to a few days to dry the flowers. The flowers are placed into slots in a wire mesh and placed in the chamber. The time for the drying process also depends on the amount of flowers being dried at one time within the chamber.

3. Preserving or drying flowers and foliage using microwave: In this method, the flowers are placed between two kitchen towels and then dried in the microwave. Since an extra few seconds can burn the flowers, care needs to be taken on the number of seconds or minutes they are microwaved. After a minute of microwaving, it is best to check the flowers every few seconds in order to avoid burning them.

c) Mini saga

A piece of writing with exactly fifty words is Mini saga.

Crop rotation: Crop rotation is the practice of growing a series of dissimilar or different types of crops in the same area in sequenced seasons or in a year.

Role of food production in national economy and national food security:

• With a five-fold increase in food grain production from 50 million tonnes in 1950-51 to about 285 million tonnes in 2017-18, India has moved away from dependence on food aid to become a net food exporter. 
• Agriculture and food production sector play a vital role in the Indian economy. 
• India is the world’s largest producer of pulses, rice, wheat, spices and spice products. 
• Over 70 per cent of the rural households depend on agriculture. 
• Agriculture is an important sector of Indian economy as it contributes about 17% to the total GDP and provides employment to over 60% of the population. 
• Since the Green Revolution in the 60s, India became self-sufficient in meeting national food and nutritional needs. 
• Currently, India is capable of feeding its growing population besides exporting surplus food which is an indicator of national food security.

a) Recycle bank

Recycle bank encourage people to recycle household waste by using gamification.

Fruit jam: 

• Step 1 - Pick the fruits. 
• Step 2 - Wash the jars and lids. 
• Step 3 -Wash and hull the fruits. 
• Step 4 - Crush the fruits. 
• Step 5 – Add sugar. 
• Step 6 - Mix the fruits with the pectin and cook to a full boiling while stirring. 
• Step 7 – Cool the jam & pack the jars

Eisenia foetida, Eudrilus euginae

Types of garden

1. FORMAL STYLE 

• The gardens of Greece and Rome assured an emotional security though their Formal style. 
• The Italian renaissance garden was having intricate geometric, sheared trees, trimmed hedges and edges to create formality 
• The impact of formalism influenced the French and British gardens also in the form of parierre, the much-divided flower beds.

2. INFORMAL STYLE 

• Hindu Buddhist and Japanese garden laid no emphasis on formality. 
• Brindavan of lord Krishna was a wood land. 
• Every temple was provided with irregular shaped lotus tanks. 
• Japanese developed an intensely national and naturalistic style of its own.

3. FREE STYLE 

• This style combines the good points of both formal and informal style of gardening. Rose garden of Ludhiana is an example of this style of gardening.

Post-harvest management

Post-harvest management comprises the various technologies and practices undergone by the farmer, farmers' groups or cooperatives and/or agribusiness companies, from the field to the plate, to handle the crop production immediately following harvest, up to its final destination, such as storing, transport, cleaning, sorting, processing and packing.

PHM of mango

• Harvesting at right stage of maturity as per end use. 
• Harvesting in the morning hours 
• Harvesting with a harvesting tool 
• De-sapping 
• Pre-cooling 
• Sorting 
• Grading 
• Post-Harvest treatments (HWT, VHT, Chemical treatments etc.) 
• Packing in CFB single layer boxes 
• Storage at 10-13 ºC 
• Transportation to distant markets.

Major post-harvest management steps of fruits and vegetables: 

• Pre-harvest treatment 
• Harvesting at maturity 
• Safe harvesting 
• Pre cooling & washing 
• Surface drying 
• Cool/cold storage 
• Safe transport 
• Safe handling

Post-harvest management: It involves all kinds of operations/treatments after harvest of the economic produce. 

For example: the freshly harvested commodity/horticultural produce are made to undergo these treatments to minimize losses and increase its shelf-life, and add value to the product.

Major function of Sulphur in plants are 

• Chlorosis of the longer leaves 
• If deficiency is severe, Entire plant can be chlorotic and stunted 
• Promotion of nodulation for N fixation by legumes 
• It increases oil content in oil seed crops

Vermi-composting: It is a method of using earthworms to transform organic waste into nutrient-rich fertilizers. It is a healthy and clean way to eliminate wastes materials, which improves the environment. Vermi-composting is inexpensive, and only takes two to three months to produce results. 

Advantage of vermi-composting 

1. Vermicompostis rich in all essential plant nutrients. 

2. It improves soil texture, structure and aeration. 

3. It neutralizes the soil protection. 

4. Vermicompost is free flowering, easy to apply, handle and store. 

5. Vermi-compost is rich in beneficial micro flora such as fixers, p- solubilizer. 

6. Vermi-compost contains earthworms, cocoons and increases the population and activity.

Role of maturity 

• Immature fruit don’t develop adequate size, colour and flavour and poor quality and have less storage life. 
• Over mature fruit develop several storage disorders with very low shelf life.

a. Harvesting: - There is an optimum time for harvesting cereals, depending on the maturity of the crop and the climatic conditions. This has a significant effect on the quality of the grain during storage. 

Harvesting often begins before the grain is ripe and continues until mould and insect damage are prevalent. Grain not fully ripened contains a higher proportion of moisture and will deteriorate more quickly than mature grains because the enzyme systems are still active. 

Cereals are traditionally harvested manually. There are three main types of harvesting equipment for the small scale producer: manual, animal powered and engine powered. Harvested crops are left in the field for a few days to dry before further processing. 

b. Threshing: - Threshing is the removal of grains from the rest of the plant. It involves three different operations: Separating the grain from the panicle; sorting the grain from the straw; winnowing the chaff from the grain. 

Separation of the grain from the panicle is the most energy-demanding of the three processes. It is the first process to have been mechanized. Sorting the grain from the straw is relatively easy, but is difficult to mechanise. Winnowing is relatively easy, both by hand and by machine. 

A range of engine powered threshers are available. 

c. Winnowing: - Winnowing is the separation of the grains from the chaff or straw. It is traditionally carried out by lifting and tossing the threshed material so that the lighter chaff and straw get blown to one side while the heavier seeds fall down vertically. 

Hand-held winnowing baskets are used to shake the seeds to separate out the dirt and chaff. They are very effective, but slow. 

There is a range of winnowing machines that use a fan to create artificial wind. This speeds up the winnowing process. 

Some of these contain sieves and screens that grade the grains as well. 

d. Drying: - Prior to storage or further processing, cereal grains need to be dried. The most cost-effective method is to spread out in the sun to dry. In humid climates it may be necessary to use an artificial dryer. 

Cereal grains should be dried to 10-15% moisture before storage.

The economic thresholds for fruit pests are likely to Remain the same.

Integrated pest management

It is also known as integrated pest control (IPC) which is a broad-based approach that integrates practices for economic control of pests. IPM aims to suppress pest populations below the economic injury level (EIL).

Biological control of pests

Use of Predators: Predators catch and eat their prey. Some common predatory arthropods include ladybird beetles, carabidae (ground) beetles, big-eyed bugs, and spiders.

Use of Parasitoids: Parasitoids (sometimes called parasites) do not usually eat their hosts directly. Adult parasitoids of caterpillars and host insect, such as nectar or pollen.

Use of Pathogens: Pathogens are disease-causing organisms. with your certifier before using this. Several insect-pathogenic fungi are used as microbial control agents, … insect-parasitic (entomopathogenic or insecticidal) nematodes… to be effective.

Major pests: Lemon butter fly, citrus psylla, leaf miner, white fly, fruit fly, sucking moth

Damage and management of Citrus psylla: Young and adults suck sap from tender parts like….drop of flowers,,,,fruits…heavy losses..spray metasystox or rogor ( 0.03%) during new flushes.

Queen: Major work is to lay eggs for new colonies. It is all time protected by workers. 

Drone: Major work is to mate the queen. Only one drone is required for mating. Otherwise drones have no other work. 

Workers: All work in a colony is done by the workers. They collect nectar, protect queen and hive.

Different value added products of fruits and vegetables are: Jam, jelly, marmalade, RTS, Fruit bar, fruit leather, Fruit cheese, fruit juices, nectar, squashes, pickles, candy, powder etc.

Uttariya- upper garment, usually cotton or silk, ornamented borders and fringes.

Courtiers- one or both shoulders, diagonally across the chest. Loosely draped across the back with free ends hanging down the lower arm or wrapped around the wrist.

Commoners- wrapped the coarse cotton uttariya around the head for protection against the sun or wrapped it around the waist, leaving the arms bare.

The simultaneous shifts can happen in four possible ways: 

1. Both supply and demand curves shift rightwards. 

2. Both supply and demand curves shift leftwards. 

3. Supply curve shifts leftward and demand curve shifts rightward 

4. Supply curve shifts rightward and demand curve shifts leftward.

The functions of money are as follows: 

1. Medium of exchange: Money plays an important role as a medium of exchange. It facilitates exchange of goods for money. It has solved the problems of barter system. Money has widened the scope of market transactions. Money has become a circulating material between buyers and sellers.

2. Measure of value/unit of account: The money acts as a common measure of value. The values of all goods and services can be expressed in terms of money.

3. Stork of value: People can save part of their present income and hold the same for future. Money can be stored for precautionary motives needed to overcome financial stringencies. Money solves one of the deficiencies of barter system, i.e. difficulty to carry forward one’s wealth under the barter system.

4. Transfer of value: Money acts as a transfer of value from person to person and from place to place. As a transfer of value, money helps us to buy goods, properties or anything from any part of the country or the world. Further, money earned in different places can be brought or transferred to anywhere in the world.

Jam, jelly, marmalade, RTS, Fruit bar, fruit leather, Fruit cheese, fruit juices, nectar, squashes, pickles, candy, powder etc.

Indian honey bee (Apies ceranaindica), Italian honey bee (Apismellifera), Giant honey bee ( Apies dorsata) Small honey bee (Apies florea)

In the short run, the shut down point is that point of minimum average variable cost where short run marginal cost curve cuts the average variable cost curve. In the long run, the shut down point is the minimum of long run average cost curve.

(a) MC = MR 

(b) MC must be rising. 

The three methods of measuring GDP are: 

1. Product or value-added method. 

2. Expenditure method. 

3. Income method.

a. The star status of movie actors makes them celebrities. This is the reason for the effectiveness of product endorsements by stars. Advertising practitioners rely on a celebrity face to stand out among innumerable advertisements and expect the likeability of the star to transfer to the product. Their performances create an illusion of interpersonal relationships with viewers. Even though the relationship is imaginary, people identify with them. Social behaviour and consumer purchasing is after influenced by media personalities because they are perceived as reliable advisors and role models.

b. Note: Since it is an open ended question, students can even write answer other than options given below.

• Mohabatein- Amitabh Bachan- Formal sherwanis 
• Ghajini- Aamir Khan- Stylish formals 
• Dabangg- Salman Khan- Khakis

A shut down point is a level of operations at which a company experiences no benefit for continuing operating and decided shut down temporarily.

The four factors of production are land, labour, capital, and organisation. 

The rewards of these factors of production are as follows: 

1. Land gets rent 

2. Labour gets wages 

3. Capital gets interest 

4. Organisation gets profit.

(i) – (e) 

(ii) – (c) 

(iii) – (a) 

(iv) – (b) 

(v) – (d)

The problem is related to distribution of goods and services produced in the economy. It arises because the output produced is limited while the wants of people are unlimited. In other words it is the problem of distribution of income because income gives the people power to purchase these goods.

When the market structure has large number of firms, free entry and exit of firms and differentiated goods, then it is called monopolistic competition.

For example, there is large number of soaps producing firms. But many of the soaps being produced are associated with some brand name and are distinguishable from the other companies. The consumer develops a preference for a particular brand of soap over time or becomes loyal to a particular brand like some people always prefer Mysore Sandal Soap.

(a) Utility approach – It is assumed that utility can be measured and a consumer can expressed his satisfaction in quantitative term. 

(b) Indifference curve approach – An indifference curve approach focus of various combination of two commodity which gives equal satisfaction to consumer.

(i) Nature of commodity. 

(ii) Availability of substitutes. 

(iii) Income level. 

(iv) Postponement of consumption 

(v) Share in total expenditures.

(vi) Habits etc.

The price elasticity of supply refers to the proportionate change in the quantity supplied of a commodity due to change in its price. In other words, the price elasticity of supply of a good measures the responsiveness of quantity supplied to changes in the price of the good. It is measured with the help of the following formula:

Price elasticity of supply = (Percentage change in quantity supplied/Percentage change in price)

Units of one commodity which a consumer is willing to sacrifice for one extra unit of another commodity to maintain the same level of satisfaction, is known as marginal rate of substitution. It can be measured by the ratio between change in units of one commodity to change in units of another commodity. (MRSxy = ). MRS represent the slope of indifference curve. As we move downwards along the same indifference curve its slope i.e. marginal rate of substitution continuously diminishes. MRS continuously diminishes because as the stock of one commodity increases its marginal importance for the consumer will continuously decreases and as the stock of another commodity decreases its marginal importance for the consumer will continuously increases. Therefore consumer is ready to sacrifice lesser and lesser units of one commodity for the every extra unit of another commodity to maintain the same level of satisfaction. Therefore MRS continously diminishes and due to that reason indifference curve becomes convex towards the origin and rectangular hyperbola in shape.

Final goods goods will not pass through any more stages of production.

A consumer’s preferences are monotonic if between any of the given bundles, the consumer prefers the bundle which has more units of at least one of the goods and no less of the other good as compared to other bundles. ( or in other words that bundle contains more units of one commodity with the same units of another commodity or more units of both the commodities).  

The concepts of short-run and long-run are defined a period simply by looking at whether all the inputs can be varied or not. It is not advisable to define short run and long run in terms of days, months or years.

In the short run, at least one of the factor – labour or capital cannot be varied and therefore, remains fixed. In order to vary the output level, the firm can vary only the other factor. The factor that remains fixed is called the fixed factor and the other factor which the firm can vary is called the variable factor.

In the long run, all factors of production can be varied. A firm in order to produce different levels of output, in the long run, may vary both the inputs simultaneously. So, in the long run there is no fixed factor.

(i) False. Because MP will diminish but TP will still increase if MP is positive. 

(ii) True. Because under perfect competition AR and MR are equal, therefore both increase at a constant rate. 

(ii) False. Because difference between ATC and AVC is AFC (Average Fixed cost)

Monopoly refers to that market form in which there is a single producer of a commodity which has no close substitute in market and there is restrictions in the entrance and exit of firms in the market .

An open economy is one which interacts with rest of the world through various channels.

Marginal product of an input is defined as the change in output per, unit of change in the input when all other inputs are held constant. It is the additional unit of output per additional unit of variable input. It is calculated by dividing the change in output by change in input labour. The formula is

MP_L = ∆TP_L/∆L.

It is an economy where mutual transactions with other countries of the world. Like Commodity services etc.

(i) Equilibrium (market) price and quantity will increase, presuming supply to be constant. 

(ii) It will lead to decrease in price and increase in quantity transacted. 

(iii) Equilibrium price will not affected but quantity supplied and demanded will decrease in the same ratio.

Wealth of Nations.

Law of demand states that other things being equal, there is a negative relation between demand for a commodity and its price. In other words, when price of the commodity increases, demand for it falls and when price of the commodity decreases, demand for it rises, other factors remaining the constant.

The law can be explained in the following manner, i.e. “Other things being equal, a fall in price leads to expansion in demand and a rise in price leads to contraction in demand”.