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Molars is maximum in number in the human buccal cavity.

1. Liver disorder in alcoholic people may occur after years of heavy drinking. 

2. Most of the alcohol in the body is broken down in the liver by an enzyme called alcohol dehydrogenase, which transforms ethanol into a toxic compound called acetaldehyde (CH₃ CHO). 

3. ver consumption of alcohol leads to cirrhosis (distorted or scarred liver) and eventually to liver failure. Therefore, alcoholic people may suffer from liver disorder.

1. Mesentery is a tissue that is located in the abdomen. It attaches the small intestine to the wall of the abdomen and keeps it in place and therefore it does not get twisted while running and jumping. 

2. If small intestine gets twisted, the affected spot may block the food, liquid passing through it. It may sometimes cut off the blood flow if the twist is very severe. If this happens the surrounding tissue may die and can cause serious problems.

Pepsin acts in acidic medium thus it is active in stomach. There is alkaline condition in the small intestine. pH of small intestine is very high for pepsin to work. Therefore, pepsin gets denatured in the small intestine.

• Root canal treatment is also known as endodontic treatment. 
• It is a dental treatment of removing infection from inside of a tooth. 
• Root canal is hollow section of tooth which contains the nerve tissue, blood vessels and other cells, this is also known as pulps. 
• Crown and root are a part of tooth. Crown is present above the gum while root is embedded in the gum. e. Pulp which is present inside the root canal nourishes the tooth and provides moisture to the surrounding material. 
• The nerves present inside the pulp sense hot cold temperatures as pain. 
• First step of a root canal treatment is removal of dead pulp tissues by making a hole on the surface of tooth.
• In second step, the dentist cleans and decontaminates the area and fills the hollow area with adhesive cement in order to seal the canal completely.
• The tooth is dead after the therapy and the patient no longer feel any pain but the tooth becomes more fragile than ever. 
• The last step of root canal is adding a crown or filling. Until the crown or filling is complete, patient is not supposed to chew or bite using that tooth. After the crown or filling patient can use that tooth as before.

The correct answer is (A) oedema of lower legs and face

Human Digestive system: 

Human digestive system consists of alimentary canal and associated digestive glands. 

Alimentary canal: Alimentary canal is a long tube-like structure of varying diameter starting from mouth and ending with anus. It is about 8-10m long. Alimentary canal consists of mouth, buccal cavity, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine and anus. 

Mouth: 

• It is also called oral or buccal cavity and is bounded by fleshy lips. 
• Its side walls are formed of cheeks, roof is formed by palate and floor by tongue.
• It is internally lined by a mucous membrane. 
• Salivary glands open into the buccal cavity. 

Function: It helps in ingestion of food. 

Teeth: 

• 32 teeth are present in the buccal cavity of an adult human being.
• Human dentition is described as thecodont, diphyodont and heterodont. 
• It is called thecodont type because each tooth is fixed in a separate socket present in jaw bones by gomphosis type of joint. 
• In our life time, we get only two sets of teeth, milk teeth and permanent teeth. This is called diphyodont dentition. We have four different type of teeth hence we are heterodont.
• Types of teeth are incisors (I) canines (C) premolars (PM) and molar (M). 
• Each half of each jaw has two incisors, one canine, two premolars and three molars. 
• Thus, dental formula of adult human can be represented as: i 2/2 , c 1/1 , pm 2/2 , m 3/3 = = 16 × 2 = 32 

Tongue: 

It is the muscular fleshy organ and is roughly triangular in shape. It lies along the floor of the buccal cavity. 

Functions: The upper surface of the tongue bears numerous projections called papillae. These papillae contain sensory receptors called taste buds. 

ii. Pliary nx: 

• The buccal cavity leads to a short pharynx.
• Pharynx is a common passage for food and air. 
• The pharynx opens into trachea through an opening called glottis. 
• The glottis is guarded by a cartilaginous flap called epiglottis. The epiglottis closes during the swallowing (deglutition) action and pre vents entry of food into the trachea. 
• The lower region of pharynx is called oropharynx. 
• Oropharynx opens into oesophagus through gullet. 

iii. Oesophagus: 

• The oesophagus is a thin, muscular tube. 
• It lies behind the trachea. 
• It is approximately 25cm long tube passes through the neck, central aspect of rib cage, pierces the diaphragm and joins the stomach.
• It is lined by mucus cells. Mucus lubricates the passageway of food.
•  Oesophagus is made up of longitudinal and circular muscles.

Function: The rhythmic wave of contraction and relaxation of these muscles is called peristalsis that helps in passage of food through oesophagus.

iv. Stomach: 

The stomach is located in the upper left portion of the abdominal cavity. It is a muscular sac-like ‘J1 shaped organ, around 25 to 30cm in length. It is divided into upper cardiac region and lower pyloric region.

• Cardia or Cardiac: It is first part in which oesophagus opens. The cardia surrounds the band of circular muscles present at the junction of oesophagus and stomach called cardiac sphincter. The cardiac sphincter prevents back flow or regurgitation of food from stomach to oesophagus. 
• Fundus: It is the dome shaped region above and left of cardia. 
• Body: It forms the large central portion of stomach that stores the food. 
• Pylorus: It is a narrow posterior region of stomach. 
• It opens into duodenum, the initial part of small intestine. 
• This opening is guarded by a set of sphincter muscles called pyloric sphincter. 
• It regulates the flow of food from stomach to small intestine. 

Function: The stomach temporarily stores the food. It chums the food and helps in mixing the food with gastric juice.

v. Small Intestine: 

• It is about 6 meters long and 2.5 cm broad tube coiled within abdominal cavity. 
• The coils are held together by mesenteries, supporting the blood vessels, lymph vessels and nerves. 
• It is divided into three parts: Duodenum, jejunum and ileum. 

vi. Large Intestine: 

• It is 1.5 meters in length. 
• It is wider in diameter and shorter than small intestine. 
• It consists of caecum, colon and rectum. 

vii. Anus: 

• Anus is the terminal opening of alimentary canal.
• It is guarded by sphincter. 

Function: It expels faecal matter by a process called egestion or defecation.

The digestive glands associated with the alimentary canal include the salivary glands, liver and pancreas. 

1. Salivary Glands: 

• There are three pairs of salivary glands which open in buccal cavity.
• Parotid glands are present in front of the ear. 
• The submandibular glands are present below the lower jaw.
• The glands present below the tongue are called sublingual. 
• Salivary glands are made up of two types of cells. 
• Serous cells secrete a fluid containing digestive enzyme called salivary amylase. 
• Mucous cells produce mucus that lubricates food and helps swallowing. 

2. Liver:

• Liver is dark reddish-brown coloured largest gland of the body, weighing 1.2 to 1.5 kg, in adults. 
• Situated in right upper portion of the abdominal cavity, below the diaphragm.
• Divided into 2 lobes, right and left. 
• A thin connective tissue sheath called Glisson’s capsule covers the liver and invaginates inside to divide the liver into cord like structures called hepatic lobules which are functional units of liver containing hepatic cells (hepatocytes).
• Each hepatic lobule is polygonal in shape. At the junction of adjacent lobules, a triangular portal area is present. 
• In this portal area a branch of each of hepatic artery, hepatic portal vein and bile duct are present. Lobule consist of cords of hepatic cells which are arranged around a central vein. 
• In between the cords of hepatic cells, spaces called sinusoids are present through which the blood flows. In the sinusoids, phagocytic cells called Kupffer cells are present. 
• Hepatic cells secrete bile. Bile is carried by hepatic ducts in a thin muscular sac called gall bladder. The duct of the gall bladder and hepatic duct together form common bile duct.
• Liver synthesizes vitamins A, D, K and B , blood proteins. 

3. Pancreas: 

• Pancreas is a leaf shaped heterocrine gland present in the gap formed by bend of duodenum under the stomach. 
• Exocrine part of pancreas is made up of acini, the acinar cells secrete alkaline pancreatic juice that contains various digestive enzymes.
• Pancreatic juice is collected and carried to duodenum by pancreatic duct. 
• The common bile duct joins pancreatic duct to form hepatopancreatic duct. It opens into duodenum. Opening of hepato-pancreatic duct is guarded by sphincter of Oddi. Endocrine part of pancreas is made up of islets of Langerhans situated between the acini.
• It contains three types of cells acells which secrete glucagon, P-cells which secretes insulin and 5 cells secrete somatostatin hormone.
• Glucagon and insulin together control the blood-sugar level.
• Somatostatin hormone inhibits glucagon and insulin secretion.

The correct answer is (C) carbohydrates

The correct answer is (A) Pepsin

The actual energy produced by 1 g food is its physiological value.

1. Maltase acts on maltose to form glucose. 

2. Sucrase acts on sucrose to form glucose and fructose. 

3. Lactase acts on lactose to form glucose and galactose. 

4. Dipeptidase acts on dipeptides to form amino acids. 

5. Emulsified fats are converted into fatty acids and glycerol by lipase.

A- Bile duct, B- Stomach, C- Common hepatic duct, D- Pancreas, E- Gall Riadder

Functions:

Bile duct: It carries hile from the gall bladder and empties it into the tipper part of the small intestine. Common hepatic duct: It drains bile from the liver. It helps in transportation of waste from liver and helps in digestion by releasing bile.

1. Nutrition is the sum of the processes by which an organism consumes and utilizes food substances,

2. WHO defines nutrition as the intake of food, considered in relation to the body’s dietary needs.

3. The term nutrition includes the process like ingestion, digestion, absorption, assimilation and egestion.

Nutrition is the process of taking food into the body and absorbing the nutrients in those foods.

The various steps involved in nutrition are as follows: 

1. Ingestion: It is the introduction of food into mouth, i.e. intake of food (eating) inside the body. 

2. Digestion: The process during which the complex, non-diffusible and nonabsorbable food substances are converted into simple, diffusible and absorbable substances by the action of enzymes is called digestion. 

3. Absorption: The process of diffusion of digested food into blood and lymph is called absorption. 

4. Assimilation: The process by which protoplasm is synthesized into each cell of the body by utilizing simple food substances are called assimilation. 

5. Egestion: The elimination of undigested food from the body is called egestion.

• Little extra or less of nutrition can lead to dietary’ disorder (nutrition related disorder). 
• Nutrition related disorders can be categorized based on the food that an individual consumes and conditions that develop due to malfunctioning of the organ/s or glands associated with digestive system.

1. Mechanical digestion includes various movements of alimentary canal that help chemical digestion. 

2. Mastication or chewing of food by teeth, churning in stomach and peristaltic movements of gastrointestinal tract bring about mechanical digestion in human body.

3. Chemical digestion is a series of catabolic (breaking down) reactions that hydrolyze the food. Thus, Digestion is carried out by both mechanical and chemical methods.

The absorbed food material finally reaches the tissue and becomes a part of protoplasm. This is called as assimilation.

Saliva contains 98% water and 2% other constituents like electrolytes (sodium, potassium, calcium, chloride, bicarbonates), digestive enzyme, salivary amylase and lysozyme.

Salivary Glands: 

• There are three pairs of salivary glands which open in buccal cavity. 
• Parotid glands are present in front of the ear. 
• The submandibular glands are present below the lower jaw. 
• The glands present below the tongue are called sublingual. 
• Salivary glands are made up of two types of cells. 
• Serous cells secrete a fluid containing digestive enzyme called salivary amylase. 
• Mucous cells produce mucus that lubricates food and helps swallowing.

Pancreas:

1. Pancreas is a leaf shaped heterocrine gland present in the gap formed by bend of duodenum under the stomach.

2. Exocrine part of pancreas is made up of acini, the acinar cells secrete alkaline pancreatic juice that contains various digestive enzymes. 

3. Pancreatic juice is collected and carried to duodenum by pancreatic duct. 

4. The common bile duct joins pancreatic duct to form hepato-pancreatic duct. It opens into duodenum. 

5. Opening of hepato-pancreatic duct is guarded by sphincter of Oddi. 

6. Endocrine part of pancreas is made up of islets of Langerhans situated between the acini. 

7. It contains three types of cells a-cells which secrete glucagon, P-cells which secretes insulin and 5 cells secrete somatostatin hormone. 

8. Glucagon and insulin together control the blood-sugar level. 

9. Somatostatin hormone inhibits glucagon and insulin secretion.

The intestinal juice contains various enzymes like dipeptidases, lipases, disaccharidases, maltase, sucrase and lactase.

Muscularis layer in stomach is thicker than that of intestine because food is churned and gastric juices are mixed in the stomach whereas in intestine only absorption takes place.

The correct answer is (C) Oesophagus

1. Jaundice is a disorder characterized by yellowness of conjunctiva of eyes and skin and whitish stool. 

2. It is a sign of abnormal bilirubin metabolism and excretion. 

3. Jaundice develops if excessive break down of red blood cells takes place along with increased bilirubin level than the liver can handle or there is obstruction in the flow of bile from liver to duodenum. 

4. Bilirubin produced from breakdown of haemoglobin is either water soluble or fat soluble. 

5. Fat soluble bilirubin is toxic to brain cells. 

6. There is no specific treatment to jaundice.

7. Supportive care, proper rest are the treatments given to the patient.

The correct answer is (B) HCl

The correct answer is (B) amylase

1. ‘X’- Vagus nerve, ‘Y’- Gastrin ‘Z’- Sympathetic nerve 

2. Intestinal mucosa produces hormones like secretin, cholecystokinin (CCK) and gastric inhibiting peptide (G1P). 

3. Secretin inhibits secretion of gastric juice. 

4. It stimulates secretion of bile juice from liver, pancreatic juice and intestinal juice. 

5. CCK brings about similar action and induces satiety that is feeling of fullness or satisfaction.

6. GIP also inhibits gastric secretion.

Digestion is defined as the process by which the complex, non-diffusible and nonabsorbable food substances are converted into simple, diffusible and assimilable substances.

The correct answer is (A) pharynx

1. Rennin found in gastric juice of infants acts on casein, a protein present in milk. 

2. It brings about curdling of milk proteins with the help of calcium. 

3. The coagulated milk protein is further digested with the help of pepsin.

4. Rennin is absent in adults.

Jaundice and Hepatitis are two different disorders.

Jaundice: Jaundice occurs when the rate of bilirubin production exceeds the rate of its elimination. It causes yellowing of skin and eyes. 

Hepatitis: It is a disease where there is inflammation of liver. It may be caused because of infection, over alcohol consumption, immune system disorder etc.

The life processes which are essential and provide us energy are nutrition and respiration.

Ileum opens into large intestine.

It is 1.5 meters in length. 

It is wider in diameter and shorter than small intestine. 

It consists of caecum, colon and rectum.

1. Caecum:

• Caecum is a small, blind sac present at the junction of ileum and colon.
• It is 6cm in length. 
• It hosts some symbiotic microorganisms. 
• An elongated worm like vermiform appendix arises from the caecum.
• Appendix is vestigial organ in human beings and functional in herbivorous animals for the digestion of cellulose.

2. Colon: 

• Caecum opens into colon. 
• Colon is tube like-organ consist of three parts, ascending colon, transverse colon and descending colon.
• The colon is internally lined by mucosal cells. 

3. Rectum: 

• It is posterior region of large intestine. 
• It temporarily stores the undigested waste material called faeces till it is egested out through anus.

It is about 6 meters long and 2.5 cm broad tube coiled within abdominal cavity. The coils are held together by mesenteries, supporting the blood vessels, lymph vessels and nerves. 

It is divided into three parts. 

1. Duodenum:

• It is about 26 cm long ‘U’ shaped structure. 
• The duodenum turns towards left side of abdominal cavity below the stomach. 

2. Jejunum:

• It is about 2.5 meters long, coiled middle portion of small intestine. 
• It is narrower than the duodenum. 

3. Ileum: 

• It is about 3.5 meters long. 
• It is highly coiled and little broader than jejunum. 
• The ileum opens into the caecum of large intestine at ileocaecal junction.

The correct answer is (A) i – c, ii – d, iii – a, iv – b

1. Bile juice is dark green coloured fluid that contains bile pigments (bilirubin and biliverdin), bile salts (Naglycocholate and Na-taurocholate), cholesterol and phospholipid. 

2. Bile does not contain any digestive enzyme. 

3. Bile salts neutralise the acidity of chyme and make it alkaline. 

4. It brings about emulsification of fats.

5. It also activates lipid digesting enzymes or lipases. 

6. Bile pigments impart colour to faecal matter.

Ramesh experienced reverse spasmodic peristalsis. The contents of the stomach backed up (refluxed) into Ramesh’s oesophagus. The HCL from the stomach irritated the walls of the oesophagus that resulted in burning sensation which is commonly known as heartburn. Ramesh’s heavy meal worsened the problem. Additionally, lying down immediately after meal intensified the problem.

The dental formula of a three-year-old child will be: 

I \(\frac{2}{2}\), C \(\frac{1}{1}\), M \(\frac{2}{2}\) = \(\frac{2,1,2}{2,2,1}\)

i. e. 5 × 2 = 10 teeth in each jaw = 20 teeth. 

As a child has 20 teeth by the age of three.

The correct answer is (C) temporary storage of undigested matters

The correct answer is (B) 6

Heart burn is a problem created when stomach contents (acid) are forced back up to oesophagus. It causes a burning pain in lower chest.

Antacids are bases and help to treat heartburn by neutralizing the stomach acid. The key ingredients of antacids are calcium carbonate,magnesium hydroxide, aluminium hydroxide or sodium bicarbonate.

The study of teeth with respect to their number, arrangement, development etc. is known as dentition.

1. Human dentition is described as thecodont, diphyodont and heterodont.

2. It is called the codont type because each tooth is fixed in a separate socket present in the jaw bones by gomphosis type of joint. 

3. It is called diphyodont type because we get only two sets of teeth, milk teeth and permanent teeth. 

4. It is called heterodont type because humans have four different type of teeth like incisors, canines, premolars and molars.

The correct answer is (C) Pre-molars

1. Pancreatitis is inflammation of the pancreas. 

2. It may occur due to alcoholism and chronic gallstones. 

3. Other reasons include high levels of calcium, fats in blood. 

4. However, in 70% of people with pancreatitis, main reason is alcoholism.

The gastro-oesophageal sphincter controls the passage of food into the stomach.

i. energy, organic material. 

ii. Vitamins, minerals.