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Role of Public Sector Enterprises in the development of economy are : 

(i) By building economic overheads e.g. roads, railways, powers etc., it increased the productive capacity of an economy. 

(ii) Public sector is playing an important role in generating employment in the country by giving employment in government administration, defence and other government services. 

(iii) Public sector investment on infrastructure sector like power, transportation, communication, basic and heavy industries, irrigation, education and technical training etc. has paved the way for agricultural and industrial development of the country leading to the overall development of the economy as a whole. 

(iv) Public sector enterprises have been contributing a lot for the promotion of India’s exports.

(v) Another important role of the public sector is that it has successfully build the strong industrial base in the country.

(a) It is the degree of responsiveness of demand for a commodity with reference to change in price of the commodity. 

(b) If the tax is imposed at the same rate on the persons of different income level, it is called proportional tax. 

(c) It refers to the increase in the stock of real capital in an economy during an accounting period. 

(d) The aggregate of all human physical and mental effort used in creation of goods & services. 

(e) Inflation : Rapidly or persistent rise in price.

(a)

(b) Expenditure tax is a taxation plan that replaces the income. Instead of applying a tax based on the income earned, tax is allocated based on the rate of spending. This is different from a sales tax which is applied at the time the goods or services are provided and is considered a consumption tax. 

(c) Money is accepted as a common measure of value. Under the barter system, the value of a commodity were expressed in terms of other commodity. The value of rice could have been expressed in terms of piece of cloth but after the evolution of money, the problem get resolved as now price of any commodity can be expressed in terms of money. 

(d) The nature of good affect its elasticity of demand in following manner— 

1. The demand for necessity items is generally less elastic. Such commodities are bought in certain fixed quantities irrespective of their prices. 

2. The demand for comfort items are relatively elastic. 

3. The demand for luxuries items are highly elastic. 

(e) Two agency functions of a Commercial Bank— 

1. Collection and Making payments for credit Instruments—The bank collects the payment of the bills of exchange, promissory notes, cheques, etc. on behalf of its customers. 

2. Collection of Dividend—The bank collects the dividends, and interests on shares and debentures as per instructions of its customers.

(i) Labour is a hired factor of production whereas entrepreneur hires other factors of production. 

(ii) Labour earns wages whereas entrepreneur earns profits.

Efficiency of Labour: According to Mehta, “By efficiency of labour is meant the ability of labour by virtue of which it is productive. In simple words, efficiency of labour refers to the quality and quantify of goods and services which can be produced over a given time under certain conditions.

Two causes of low efficiency of Indian Labour: 

1. Wages not determined by efficiency—Workers in India are not paid according to their efficiency. The employers do not give to the efficient workers the higher incomes that they deserve. 

2. Inadequate training facilities—There is also a lack of training facilities for the workers in India. In the absence of training facilities, the workers are not able to develop their skills thus leading to low efficiency.

Suggestions to improve the quality of labour in India:

1. Productivity linked wage—Wages should be linked to productivity of the workers. Hence more efficient workers should be paid higher wages than compared to their less efficient counterparts. 

2. Favourable working conditions—Attention should be paid to the working conditions in the factories. More hygienic conditions and congenial conditions would help in achieving higher levels of efficiency. 

3. Adequate training Facilities—Adequate provisions for imparting training to the workers should be made. (any one)

(a) Increase in Demand—Increase in demand refers to a situation when the consumers buy larger amount of a commodity at the same existing price. Increase in demand may take place due to rise in income, a change in taste, rise in the price of substitutes, a fall in prices of complementary goods, increase in population, redistribution of income, etc. Factors Affecting Price Elasticity of Demand 

1. Availability of substitutesp—A commodity with more and close substitutes tends to have an elastic demand and one with a few weak substitutes has an inelastic demand.For example: If price of Pepsi falls, a large number of consumers will switch over the Pepsi from Coke. On the other hand when the price of milk increases, the quantity demanded will not decrease much and vice versa. 

2. Proportion of Income Spent—Smaller is the proportion of Income spent on a commodity, the smaller will be the elasticity of demand and vice-versa. For example: The demand for soap, salt, matches, etc. is highly inelastic since the consumer spends a very small proportion of his income on them. 3. Habits of the consumer—Price elasticity of demand depends also upon whether or not the consumers are habitual of using a commodity. If consumers are habitual of consuming some commodities, they will continue to consume these even at higher prices. The demand for such commodities will be usually inelastic. 

4. Time Factor—Price Elasticity is generally low for the short period as compared to long period. This is for 2 reasons— 

Firstly—It takes time for consumers to adjust their tastes, preferences and habits. Secondly, new substitutes may be developed in the long run. 

(b) “Land is a specific factor or that it is the specific element in a factor or again that it is the specific aspect of a thing.” —Prof. J. K. Mehta 

The term ‘land’ generally refers to the surface of the earth. But in economics it includes all that, which is available free of cost from ‘nature’ as a gift to human being. Land stands for all nature, living and non living which is used by man in production. 

Importance of Land as a factor of Production—In every kind of production, we have to use land. Therefore land is a basic factor of production. 

1. In industries, it helps to provide raw material. 

2. It provide space/surface for setting up the sites for industrial infrastructure. 

3. In Agriculture, land is considered as the main factor of production as crops are produced on land. 

4. All sources of power i.e. hydro electricity, thermal power, diesel, coal, oil, etc. emanate from land. 

Fundamentally speaking, ‘land’ is the original source of all material wealth and it is of immense rise to mankind. Inspite of being a passive factor, it is an important factor of production. An overall economic prosperity of a country is directly related to the richness of its natural resources.

(i) Lack of skill. 

(ii) Lack of regular training.

The two causes of low efficiency of labour in India are :

(i) Low wages

(ii) Inadequacy of Machinery.

(iii) Migratory Character

(iv) Hot and Enervating Climate

(i) Governments can intervene to promote equity, and reduce inequality and poverty, through the tax and benefits system which ensures that the burden of tax is not falling on the poor sections of the society. 

(ii) When government construct suitable expenditure policies it should leads to benefit lower income group of society to reduce poverty and narrow the income gap.

(i) A monopolist can charge different prices in different markets due to product differentiation which leads to lack of perfect knowledge. Buyers and sellers do not have perfect knowledge about the market conditions. Selling costs create artificial superiority in the minds of the consumers and it becomes very difficult for a consumer to evaluate different products available in the market. As a result, a particular product (although highly priced) is preferred by the consumers even if other less priced products are of same quality.

(ii) 1. One seller but large number of buyers : In the monopoly market, there is only one seller but large number of buyers. This single seller may be in the form of an individual owner or a partnership or a joint stock company. Being the only seller, a monopolist faces no competition from other firms.

Not only that there is no difference between firm and industry in this form of market structure. Because of this the market demand curve is also the demand curve for monopolist. But the number of buyers is large in this market. An individual buyer has no influence on the market price. The buyers have no option but to purchase the commodity from the monopolist or go without the product.

2. No close substitute : In the monopoly market, monopolist produces goods that have no close substitutes. This is an essential condition for a firm to be called monopolistic. The goods which can be easily used for each other and are available at nearly the same price are called close substitutes.

If there are some other firms which are producing close substitutes for the product in question there will be competition between them and then the firm cannot be said to have monopoly. Due to this particular feature, cross elasticity of demand between the product of the monopolist and the product of any other producer must be nil or very small.

3. Strong barriers to the entry of new firm : Another important feature of the monopoly market is that there are. barriers or restrictions on the entry of new firms on the market. The barriers which prevent the firms to enter the industry may be economic in nature or else of institutional and artificial in nature. These restrictions may take several forms such as patent rights, copy rights, government laws and economies of scale.

1. When the entrepreneurs introduce cost reducing or demand creating innovations in various industries, the industrial production helps in economic development. 

2. Different types of innovations result in higher profits for the entrepreneurs. They generally spend a greater portion, of their profits in new-ventures or for productive purposes. Thus higher investment can create greater employment and income opportunities within the country.

1. 1. Acceptance of deposits: The principal function of any commercial bank is to accept deposits from different individuals and institutions. The commercial banks open an account for this purpose. Generally, commercial banks keep three types of deposits: 

(a) Fixed or time deposits: Here the depositors keep their money for specified period of time and earn a given rate of interest (per annum). 

(b) Savings deposits: Though the depositors get interest on the deposited amount interest is relatively less as compared to that in fixed deposits. 

(c) Current deposits: Here the depositor does not get any interest on their deposits but get the ‘overdraft’ facilities (i.e., withdrawal of deposits in excess of the deposited amount). 

2. Providing loans: Commercial banks also give short and medium-term loans against some collateral, securities or by mortgaging of some assets and charge interest on such loans. These loans can be divided into four categories: 

(a) Ordinary loans: In these cases, the commercial banks give loans for purchasing consumer durables for building ‘own house’, etc. 

(b) Cash credit: This type of loan is given to any business firm. The bank fixes certain ‘credit limit’ determined on the basis of the value of stocks/sales of that firm. The firm is allowed to withdraw money from its account within that credit limit. 

(c) Overdraft facility: In this case, the bank allows the depositor to withdraw money in excess of the deposited amount in its account. 

(d) Discounting bill of exchange: Commercial Banks also given loans by rediscounting the bill of exchange submitted by the debtors for this purpose. 

3. Transfer of funds: Commercial Banks help the customers in transforming funds from one place to another through different credit instruments such as bank drafts, mail transfers etc.

2. Cash Reserve Ratio refers to cash reserves of the commercial banks with RBI, as a percentage of their total deposits. During inflation, the Central Bank increases the cash reserve ratio. As a result, the amount of loanable funds with the commercial banks decline and the process of credit creation by the commercial bank is checked.

1. Factors on which efficiency of labour depends 

1. Racial Characteristics: The efficiency of labour to a great extent depends upon the racial stock to which it belongs and the heredity of labour. People of some regions are physically sturdy and hard working as compared to other places. As such they are very enterprising and comparatively more efficient in jobs where physical labour is involved. 

2. Climatic Conditions: It has been found that climatic conditions greater influences the efficiency of workers. Generally, cold climate is more conductive to hard work than the hotter one. The workers of the temperate regions are more hard working than those of tropical regions. However, extremely cold climate is also unfavourable for human activities. Accordingly the productivity of worker is influenced by the climatic conditions to a considerable extent. 

3. General and Technical Education: The general education broadens the knowledge, develops the intellect and improves the skill of a person. The technical education provides knowledge to a worker concerning different systems of work of the productive units. All these make an educated person more efficient and better in skills, as compared to an uneducated and untrained person. 

4. Personal Qualities and Character: The workers possessing good moral character and having qualities like honesty, intelligence, preserverance, resourcefulness, sense of responsibility and ability to take correct decision will definitely be more efficient than those who do not possess the above qualities. Personal qualities of willingness to work and to progress in life, makes a worker more ambitious and he becomes more and more hard working and efficient. Such workers do not remain satisfied with their present position and always remain active for further progress in life.

2. Causes of Inefficiency of Indian Labour: 

1. Low Wages: If higher efficiency leads to higher income, then only the workers have the incentive to become more efficient. But generally the wages of labour in India are low and so is the standard of living. As such, the workers are not in a positive mood to keep themselves physically and mentally fit and in sound health, and they have little leisure time for recreation. This is also a cause of low efficiency.

2. Migratory Character: A very high proportion of worker usually come to . work in factories from villages when their agricultural activities are minimum. During the period when the agricultural activities start, these workers take leave or remain absent from work. This type of migratory behaviour lowers the efficiency of workers and productivity of industrial units.

Two advantages of depositing money with the commercial banks are: 

1. Money remains safe in the bank. 

2. We earn interest on the money deposited with the banks.

Product differentiation implies that a consumer perceives products of different producers as not being totally identical and as such less than perfect substitutes. The producers try to reinforce this impression by giving separate brand names and making use of such trade practices as packaging, colour, design, advertisement etc. Product differentiation is relevant to monopolistic competition.

(i) Labour cannot be separated from Labourer : Land and capital can be separated from their owners but labour cannot be separated from a labourer. Labour and labourer are inseparable from each other. The labourer will have to present himself at a place where work is going on. 

For example, it is not possible for a teacher to teach in the school, while staying away at home. Therefore, the worker and his service go together. He cannot sell his labour like land and capital.

(ii) Labour can improve its efficiency : The supply of labour is inelastic in a country at a particular time. It means its supply can neither be increased nor decreased. 

For example, if a country has scarcity of a particular type of workers, its supply cannot be increased within a day, month or year. The supply of labour depends upon the size of population. Population cannot be increased or decreased quickly. Children take time to become workers.

(iii) Labour is perishable : If a worker does not work on a particular day, his labour for that day is wasted. Labour is, thus, perishable. Labour cannot be stored. The labourer has to sell his labour immediately irrespective of the prices (i.e., wages) paid to him. It is because of this feature that labour has a weak bargaining power.

Money is anything which is universally accepted as a medium of exchange, measure of value, store of value and standard of deferred payments and has divisibility and transferability. Money is the means of valuation and of payment; as both the unit of account and the generally accepted medium of exchange.

1. Standard of deferred payment : Most of the business transactions are done on credit basis, which call for future payments. Borrowing and lending is generally carried in terms of money whose value remain fairly stable. 

2. Store of Value : Money enables a person to preserve value without fear of loss. Money can be stored easily in banks without loosing its value, risk and uncertainty. 

3. Transfer of Value : Money serves as a transfer of value from place to place and from time to time. It can be transferred from one place to another through cheques, money orders and drafts.”

The two factors on which supply of labour depends are:

1. Population: The most important factor affecting the supply of labour in a country is its population. The larger the population, the larger will be the number of persons who will have the capacity to perform physical or mental work. Hence, the larger will be the supply of labour. 

2. Emigration (Out-migration) and Immigration (in-migration): Growth of population, is determined not only by its natural growth but also by the out migration and in migration of people. If some people leave the country, the population goes down, and if some people enter the country from outside, the population goes up. In India, the in-migration of refugees after the partition in 1947 and the Bangladesh war of 1971 led to substantial increase in the supply of. labour.

(a) 

1. Demand for cigarettes by a habitual smoker generally have inelastic demand because these will be consumed irrespective of price variations. These addictive commodities can also be called conventional necessities. 

2. If a consumer can postpone the purchase of a refrigerator till the off season sale its demand will be elastic.

(b) Difference between a tax and a fee:

(c) Shifting of tax burden is possible in case of indirect tax. The tax is paid by some other person and the final incidence is borne by some other person e.g. excise duty and sale tax etc. 

(d) Progressive tax: A tax is called progressive when the rate of taxation increases as the tax payer’s income increases. 

Example: Income tax

(a) A change in the stock of capital in any economy during any particular time period is called capital formation. 

The process of capital formation consists of the following steps: 

1. Creation of Sayings: It is the first step in the process of capital formation. It is savings which are transformed into capital. If there is no saving, there cannot be any capital formation, even if all other conditions are favourable for capital formation. Savings are done by households and it depends on their income and willingness to save. 

2. Mobilization of Savings: If savings are kept in the form of idle cash at home, they will not lead to capital formation. In this case, the rate of investment in the country will be low, even though the rate of saving is high. The savings must be mobilized from the savers. In a modem society, financial and other institutions as well as the capital markets perform this function. People may keep their savings in the banks or other financial institutions. They can also buy shares or bonds issued by companies. 

3. Investment of Mobilized Savings: Even mobilization of savings is not sufficient for a high rate of capital formation. The mobilized savings must be actually used by producers for the purpose of investment. For instance, the money kept by the people in the banks must be lent out by the banks to the producers who can use the money. 

Capital formation is important for economic growth because: 

(i) Capital formation enhances file production, without it production is not possible.

(ii) Capital formation leads to development of human capital like education, health etc. which leads to economic growth. 

(b) Supply means the quantity actually offered for sale at a certain price, but Stock means the total quantity which can he offered for sale if the conditions are favourable. 

Factors affecting supply are as follows: 

1. Price of the commodity: Price is an important factor affecting supply of a commodity. At a higher price the producers would like to supply more and at a lower price the producers would like to supply less. 

2. Goals of the firm: The goals of a firm also affect its supply of a commodity. If the goal of a firm is profit maximisation it would supply more at a higher price and vice-versa. However, if the goal of a firm is risk-minimisation the firm would produce and supply less so as to be on the safer side.

3. Input Prices: Input prices play a role in the supply of a commodity by a firm. A firm would like to produce arid supply more if input prices would be low due to the low cost of production and vice-versa. 

4. Prices of related commodities: Related commodities refer to substitutes and compliments. If the prices of related goods especially substitutes rises then the producers will shift production to these goods and decrease the production of the existing good. The vice versa will happen when the prices of substitutes will decrease.

1. Promoting Capital Formation: Capital formation is a fundamental requirement for-economic development. Private savings are very low in the underdeveloped countries in view of the low income of the people. Therefore, there is a need for generation of savings by the government. Developing countries have to depend primarily on government to mobilise domestic resources during the early stages of economic development. The government has a major role to play in promoting capital formation.

2. Development of Economic Infrastructure: Provision of economic infrastructure is mostly the responsibility of the government. Key economic services, called infrastructure, like railways, road transport, communication network, roads, bridges, irrigation works, gas, electricity, etc., are very essential for economic development. The absence of infrastructure can retard economic development.

3. Policies of the Welfare State: The government is also required to undertake the responsibility of tlte welfare state. The welfare state is a society in which the government protects the individuals against various contingencies so as to guarantee people a minimum standard of living. The government provides various types of assistance to the people as part of the policies of a welf are state, Such as pensions, accident insurance, health insurance, etc.

4. Population Policy: Population is growing rapidly in most of the underdeveloped countries. The government can evolve an appropriate population policy to control population growth. All the development efforts will be futile if the growth in number is not checked. To increase the per capital income and to in prove the standard of living of the people, the rate of population growth must be checked. The State can evolve an appropriate population policy by giving priority to family planning programme.

Commercial bank is a financial institution which deals in money i.e. borrowing and lending of money. It performs the functions of accepting deposits from the general public and giving loans for investing to them with the aim of earning profit. The three methods adopted by commercial banks to mobolise funds from the public are as under:

1. Cash Credit: In cash credit, the bank advances a ‘cash loan’ upto a specified limit to the customer against a bond or other security. A borrower is required to open a current account and bank allows the borrowers to withdraw upto the full amount of the loan. The interest is charged only on the amount actually utilized by the borrower and not on the loan sanctioned. 

2. Loans: A loan is granted against some kind of security of assets or personal security of the borrower and the interest is charged on the full amount sanctioned as loan, irrespective of the fact whether full amount or part of it has been used. In case of loans, the borrower is provided with the facility to repay the loan in installment or as a lump sum. 

3. Overdraft: The overdraft facility is allowed to the depositor maintaining a current account with the bank. According to this facility, a borrower is allowed to withdraw more amount than what he has deposited. The excess amount so withdrawn has to be repaid to the bank in a short period and that too with interest. The rate of interest is usually charged more than that charged in case of loans. However, the overdraft facility is given only against security of some assets or on personal security of the customer.

(a) Creeping inflation: It occurs when there is a sustained rise in price at a very slow rate, say around 2 to 3 percent per year. It is also known as mild inflation. 

(b) “Direct taxes are progressive in nature.” Taxes in which the rate of tax increases with the rise in tax payers income, are called progressive taxes. The amount of tax paid will increase at a higher rate than the increase in tax base or income. 

(c) By ‘efficiency of labour’ we mean the productive capacity of a worker to do more or better work or both dining a specified period of time. 

(d) The two demerits of Barter system of exchange are as follows: 

1. Need for double coincidence of wants: The barter form of exchange can take place only when the two parties need each other’s goods in the form of exchange. 

2. Difficulty in storing value: In the barter system, it is very difficult and inconvenient to store weath for future use goods like food grains, cloth, cattle, sheep etc.

(e)

Creeping inflation occurs when there is a sustained rise in prices over time at a mild rate, say around 2 to 3 percent per year. It is also known as ‘mild inflation’. This type of inflation is not much of a problem. It is generally known as conducive to economic progress and growth. In

1. A tax may be defined as a compulsory payment made by the citizens to the Govt, to defray the common expenses incurred for all, without reference to special benefit conferred.

Two differences between income tax and commodity taxes:

2. Taxes can be used as an instrument to regulate consumption and production in an economy in the following manner: 

Consumption—Taxes are sometimes used to discourage the consumption of harmful goods like liquors, tobacco etc. Government imposes high rates of taxes on such commodities thus causing their prices to increase and their consumption to fall. 

Production—A decrease in the consumption of commodities due to imposition of higher rates of indirect taxes also discourages their production. Thus resources are diverted from the production of non-essential goods to essential goods. Resources are diverted from the production of luxury goods to the production of necessity goods which are consumed by the masses.

1. Walking Inflation—If the general price level of the economy increases at rate of about 5-6 per cent per annum, it is called walking inflation.

Running Inflation—When the price level rises a bit faster and the rate of growth of the price level is about 10 per cent per annum, it is called running inflation. At this stage, the inflation rate just becomes double digited. Here, the price movements are compared with the trotting of a horse.

2. Two reasons for soaring food prices are: 

1. The weakest monsoon rains in the last seven years and 

2. Floods in parts of the country have hurt the farm output.

3. Two measures to combat inflation are:

1. Increasing Growth Rate of Agricultural and Industrial Output— This can be achieved by providing the necessary raw materials and the infra-structural facilities needed for the growth of agriculture and industry. 

2. Control Money Supply—Demand-pull inflation is caused by increase in money supply so the money supply can be kept under control by the commercial banks through restricting the flow of credit into the economy. This will reduce the purchasing power of the people and hence their demand for goods and services thus help to curb inflation.

Liberalization may be defined as the liberalized view of the Government in respect of trade policies, industrial policies, fiscal and monetary policies etc. It wants to minimise state intervention in economic activities.

‘Globalization’ means integration of the domestic economy with the world economy mainly by allowing free flow of goods and services between countries and withdrawing of all types of unnecessary restrictions trade, especially import controls. 

Two measures to promote economic development:

1. Development of Social and Economic Infra-structure: Government is responsible for the development of economic infrastructure like roads, railways, dams, electricity, irrigation etc. and also social infra-structure like education, health services, etc.

2. To control Economic Fluctuations: The market forces of demand and supply are not able to control economic fluctuations in the country because the production and prices fluctuates on accounts of changes in demand and supply. Fluctuations in production and prices cause economic unstability which is not conducive to economic development. Therefore, state intervention is required to control economic fluctuations for proper development of the country.

India’s public debt is too high. The interest obligation on this debt is much more than the national income of the country. As a result, India has to borrow money to meet its interest obligation. This gives rise to more debt and even a higher interest obligation for future. Therefore, India is considered to be in a virtual debt trap.

Complementary Goods are those goods which are used together to satisfy a particular want. They complete the demand for each other. For example: Car and Petrol. There exists an inverse relationship between price and quantity demanded of complementary goods.

Difference between Product and Process based Division of Labour :

(i) Right to safety : The consumers have the right to be protected against marketing of goods and services which are hazardous to life and property. 

(ii) Right to be informed : The consumers have the right to know about the quality, quantity and price of goods and services, batch number, date of manufacture, expiry date, and the address of the manufacturer. This right has been provided to the consumer so that consumer can approach the courts if cheated. In recent times, the Right to Information has been expanded through Right to Information Act. 

In October 2005, the Government of India enacted a law, popularly known as RTI Act, which ensures the citizens all the information about the functioning of government departments. 

(iii) Right to choose : Consumers have the right to assess the variety of goods and services at competitive price. In case of a single supplier, the consumers have the right of be assured of satisfactory quality and service at a fair price. This right gives the consumer a surety that no producer can force him/her to purchase a particular brand or product. 

(iv) Right to seek redressal : This is the most important right. The consumer has the right to seek redressal against unfair trade practices and exploitation. If any damage has been done to the consumer, he/she has the right to get compensation depending upon degree of damage. You might be interested to know how an aggrieved person gets his/her compensation. 

(v) Right to be heard : Means consumer’s interest will receive due consideration at appropriate forums. It also include right to represent in various forums.

Product based division of labour : 

If a worker specializes in the production of a single good or service, it is called product based division of labour. In case of small farmers, a potter, a cobbler or a carpenter in a village we see that there is the use of product based division of labour. It is very common in household enterprises of developing countries like India. 

When the production is made for self consumption or on a small scale there is the use of product based division of labour. For example, most of the farmers in our country make production of food grains mainly for self consumption. All of them make use of product based division of labour. 

Process based division of labour : In big production units like corporations and government enterprises where the production is made on a very large scale, there is the use of process based division of labour. In case of process based division of labour, the production of a commodity is divided into many processes and a worker specializes in one or two processes, that is called process based division of labour. For example, Britannia Bread Company manufactures bread. Raw material for bread is wheat flour. Conversion of wheat flour into bread requires three or four processes. 

The flour has to be converted into dough and dough has to be kept into containers for baking. Containers are kept in ovens for baking. The baked bread is cut into appropriate size and packed. All processes required in manufacturing of bread are underU kcn by different workers and nobody can claim mat he has manufactured the bread. He can say that he has performed one or two processes in the preparation of the bread.

(i) Polyembryony 

(ii) Ageing (Senescence) 

(iii) Vernalisation 

(iv) Dendrochronology 

(v) Auxetic growth 

(vi) Duchenne’s Muscular Dystrophy (t)MD)

Five ways to facilitate learning are: 

• To provide opportunities to students to discover, develop and improve their interest and abilities. 

• To arrange for remedial work when required. 

• To help students to develop good study habits. 

• To make students aware of the need of educational planning. 

• To give information about higher education and stimulate them to consider this carefully.

Career counseling: Career counselling is the process of helping the candidates to select a course of study that may help them to get into job or make them employable. A career counselor helps candidates to get into a career that is suited to their aptitude, personality, interest and skills. So it is the process of making an effective correlation between the internal psychology of a candidate with the external factors of employ ability and other courses. 

Career counselors work with people from various walks of life, such as adolescents seeking to explore career options, or experienced professionals contemplating a career change. Career counselors typically have a background in vocational psychology or industrial/organisational psychology. 

Career Testing : An objective form of career counselling is through an aptitude test, or a career test. Career testing is now usually done online and provides insightful and objective information about which jobs may be suitable for the test taker based on combination of their interests, values and skills. Career tests usually provide a list of recommended jobs that match the test takers attributes with host of people with similar personalities who enjoy are successful at their jobs. There are various ways to test an individual for which field he is suitable, psychometric testing being one among them. 

Psychometric Testing : Different test companies have their own methods of testing. Usually, there are multiple sets of questions relating to personality type, how the test taker would handle aspects of work and home life, what his or her goals are for the future and his or her strengths and weaknesses. Currently more than 500 tests of personality of different types are in use. These tests have now become very scientific, refined and comprehensive compared to earlier tests. 

Intelligence Tests : Various intelligence tests are applied to detect one’s intelligence. While, average intelligent and intelligent persons can be selected for any common job, below average intelligent persons are advised to take up repetitive and jobs requiring less skills. Besides these main tests there are other testes like achievement tests, general aptitude tests, special aptitude tests and various types of special ability tests. Tests are essential for any selection, recruitment, counselling, training and even at the time of promotion. 

A general answer tracing the testing of a student (aptitude, personality, intelligence, ability and achievement); Explaining test results and achievability of goals; handling the admission process to courses (prerequisites for a course, presentation at interviews etc.) and finally finding the right for the student.

Criminal behavior : In a legal sense a person of 18 or above are convicted by the court of law for violating the IPC, CPC is labelled a criminal in our country and the illegal act for which the person is convicted is considered as a crime. Any behaviour like gambling, abduction attempt at suicide, trespassing another’s property, prostitution, sexual assault etc., are termed as criminal behavior. 

Prevention: 

• There is a great need for social reform and breaking social and caste barrier. 

• Efforts should be made for the prevention, control and treatment of the identified delinquent. 

• The task of narrowing the guilt between the rich and the poor should be given priority. 

• Attempt should be made to minimize undesirable influence of literature, films, and other mass media. 

• Parents, elders, social educational and political leaders should be such that they become ideal of socially desirable behavior.

Counselling Psychology is a broad field of psychology that emphasizes helping and advising persons with various problems of day to day life, relating to education, occupation, career, mild mental problems like mild depression, marriage and marital problems, family related problems and professional problems etc

Types of Rehabilitation is the action of restoring someone to health or normal life though training therapy after imprisonment, addiction or illness. Rehabilitation denotes a wide range of interventions designed to help people with disabilities caused by mental illness, improve their functioning and quality of life by enabling them to acquire the skills and support needed to be successful in usual adult roles and in the environment of their choice. 

Normative adult roles include living independently, attending school, working in competitive jobs, relating to family, having friends and having intimate relationship. Psychiatric rehabilitation emphasizes indepen-dence rather than reliance on professionals. 

Vocational rehabilitation : Impairment of vocational role performance is a common complication related to schizophrenia. Vocational rehabilitation has always been a centerpiece of psychiatric rehabilitation. 

Social skills rehabilitation : Psychiatric patients have difficulty fulfilling social roles, such as worker, sponse and friend and have difficulty meeting their needs when social interaction is required, (e.g., negotiating with merchants, requesting assistance to solve problems). 

Cognitive rehabilitation : Increased recognition of the prevalence and importance of new cognitive deficits has stimulated increasing interest in remediation strategies. Effect of medication is small and does not have meaningful impact on neurocognitive functioning in community. 

As a result, a parallel interest has arisen in the potential for rehabilitation or cognitive remediation. Psycho social rehabilitation does not attempt to cure serious mental disorders, rather it seeks to help persons with such disorders live as close to a normal life in the community as possible. 

The key goals of rehabilitation are as follows : To help such persons understand their disorders so that they can cope with them more effectively. For instance, patients may be taught to recognize. For early warning signs of deterioration. Those with schizophrenia can be taught to recognize the hallucinations that often precede psychotic breaks.

Psycho social rehabilitation focuses on teaching patients the practical skills they need to live in the community how to use public transportation, shop for groceries, prepare meals.

Efforts are made to have a single professional coordinate to help the patients. Efforts with respect to employment, housing, nutrition medical care and finance. Such case management help to ensure that patients get all the help available to them and do not “slip between the cracks.” 

Psycho social rehabilitation helps keep persons with serious mental disorders from having relapses or from experiencing serious problems with the law. Such programs are most beneficial if the continue on a regular basis.

Social norms are standards of behavior agreed upon by group members which exert a powerful influence on social behavior or rules indicating how individuals are expected to behave in specific situations are called social norm.

Depression is a mood disorder which is marked by the feelings of extraordinary sadness and dejection, or display of loss of interest in pleasurable activities

According to Lazarus, when a person confronts a new or changing environment they determine the meaning of the event, trying to judge the situation and it’s probable influences on them. This process is known as Primary cognitive appraisal. Events may be perceived as positive, negative or neutral in their consequences. Negative events are further appraised for their possible harm, threat or challenge

Irrational fears of specific things causing intense emotional distress and interfering significantly with everyday activities.

Automatic vigilance is the strong tendency to pay attention to undesirable or negative information. Leon, Oden and Anderson (1973) in com-parative judgments of criminal offenses found that more serious crimes (rape, murder) has more extreme weight than less serious crime (forgery, fraud).

Object Permanence is the understanding or realization of an infant that an object or person continues to exist even when out of sight. It develops between third and sixth sub-stage of the sensori-motor stage. This development in many cultures can be seen in the game of peek-a-boo.

Delinquents are adolescents who engage in violent and anti-social behavior and have ‘ a “rule-breaking” tendency. It is associated with various interacting risk factors like ineffective parenting, school failure, peer or neighborhood pressures, low social economic status. The children may get pay off for such anti-social behavior. 

However most delinquent do not become adult criminals.

Free association is a technique of Psycho-dynamic psychotherapy in which an individual must speak-out whatever comes into his or her mind regardless of how personal, painful or seemingly irrelevant it may seem to the client. The purpose is to thoroughly to explore the contents of the pre-conscious mind.

Secondary cognitive appraisal, as proposed by Lazarus, is the assessment of one’s coping abilities and resources that whether they are sufficient to meet the harm, threat or challenge of the event. When harm and threat is high and coping abilities are low, substantial stress is felt. When coping ability is high, stress may be minimal.

Freud divided human consciousness into three levels of awareness : The conscious, preconscious and unconscious. Each of these levels corresponds and overlaps with Freud’s ideas of the id, ego, and super ego. The conscious level consists of all the things we are aware of, including things we know about ourselves and our surroundings. The preconscious consists of things we could pay conscious attention to if we so desired, and is where many memories are stored for easy retrieval . Freud saw the preconscious as comprised thoughts that are unconscious at the particular moment in question, but that are not repressed and are therefore available for recall and easily capable of becoming conscious. 

The unconscious consists of things that are outside of conscious awareness, including many memories, thoughts, and urges of which we are not aware. Much of what is stored in the unconscious is thought to be unpleasant or conflicting for example; sexual impulses that are deemed unacceptable. While these elements are stored out of our awareness, they are nevertheless thought to influence our behavior.

Through job analysis, job characteristics i.e. the components of each job are known. Then through application of psychological tests the characteristics of the person are traced. Then these two are thatched. This is known as matching individuals with jobs. If matching is hundred percent, then the person is best suited for the job.

Babies with disorganized attachment often shows inconsistent contradictory behaviour. They greet their mothers bright when she returns after separation for sometime but they turn away or approach without looking at her. They seem confused and afraid. This is the least secure pattern and is most likely to occur in babies whose mothers are insensitive, intensive or abusive