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Oxides of metals like Na, K, Ca, Mg, Al are stable to heat and so can be reduced only by electrolysis.

Zinc oxide can be reduced by coke only.

Oxides of iron, lead and copper are reduced by C, CO, H₂ and NH₃.

Oxides of mercury and silver decompose to give metal and oxygen.

Metal A is more reactive than Metal B.

(a) Metal A is Na (Sodium). Metal B is Ca (Calcium).

Reaction with HCl:

2Na + 2HCl →2NaCl + H₂

Ca +2HCl →CaCl₂ + H₂

Reaction with H₂SO₄ :

2Na + H₂SO₄ →Na₂SO₄ + H₄

Ca + H₂SO₄ →CaSO₄ + H₂

(b)

(i) Oxides: Sodium and calcium oxides are stable to heat.

(ii) Hydroxides: Sodium hydroxide is stable to heat whereas calcium hydroxide decomposes on heating to metal oxide and water vapor.

(iii) Carbonates: Sodium carbonate is stable to heat whereas calcium carbonates decompose on heating to form calcium oxide and carbon dioxide.

(iv) Nitrates: Sodium nitrate on heating form nitrite and oxygen whereas calcium nitrate decomposes on heating to form calcium oxide, nitrogen dioxide and oxygen.

The two types of‘employment tests’are: 

(i) Proficiency Tests: 

1. Achievement Tests: Achievement tests measure the skills and knowledge which the candidate already possesses at the time of testing. These tests help to determine whether the claims made by the candidate about his knowledge and skills are correct or not. The candidate is asked to perform the job and his actual test performance indicates his proficffency. 

2. Dexterity Tests: These tests are designed to ascertain how swiftly and efficiently a candidate-uses his bands, fingers, eyes and other parts of the body. These tests sure useful for judging candidates for a job which requires use of different parts of the body in a coordinated manner. 

3. Intelligence Tests: These tests measure a person’s capacity for listening and comprehension in terms of his vocabulary, mental alertness, memory, reasoning etc. An applicant’s intelligence quotient (IQ) can be judged through intelligence tests. 

(ii) Aptitude Tests: Aptitude means an individual’s potential for learning the skills required for a job. Aptitude tests measure a candidate’s capacity and his potential for development. 

1. Personality Tests: Personality tests are designed to judge the emotional balance, temperament and maturity of a candidate. They reveal the ability of an aplicant to adjust to new situations and new persons. They are helpful for selecting persons for managerial jobs. 

2. Interest Tests: These tests are aimed at assessing the type of work in whcih a candidate shows special interest and involvement. The type of jobs which will be satisfying to the employees can be identified with the help of interest tests.

The waste hierarchy is a classification of waste management. The waste we create have to be carefully managed to minimize its effects on our personal health and the health of our planet. Here is a quick review of the 5R’s of managing waste, inciting simple steps you can take: 

1. Reuse: Reusing means getting the most out of things in their original form before you toss or recycle them. Reusing is a pretty simple once you get into the habit, like Waiting a shopping list or an opened envelope or the back of office paper rather than on a brand new sheet. Plastic bags can be reused several times before they are recycled. 

2. Recycle: Recycling is the ‘R’ that has caught on the best. However recycling is not as easy as one would like or even available in some Montana location. Recycling, like using cans to make new cans, is better than throwing them into the landfill, but it still takes energy to collect, crush and remake them. 

3. Reject: Rejecting is the one of the newer. Some people also call it precycling. In terms of smart waste management, this is the simple act of rejecting excessive or unnecessary packaging. You can reject—choose to not buy— foods, beverages, or other products in fancy, multilayer packaging that you will just have to throw into the trash as soon as you open them. 

4. Respond/React/Reward: This R goes by several different names, but still they ail come down to one thing: letting manufacturers and businesses know what you think about their waste management. Using the grocery bag example, you would thank your grocery store manager for selling inexpensive cloth bags and/or providing a way to recycle plastic bags. 

5. Reduce: Reducing means producing less waste so that you throw away less trash and garbage into landfills. It is the most effective way to manage waste. For example, bring your own bags, cloth or mesh bags, so you don’t take either paper or plastic.

The five responsibilities of a consumer are: 

1. The responsibility to be aware of the quality and safety of goods and services before purchasing. 

2. The responsibility to gather all the information and facts available about a product orservice as well as to keep abreast of changes and innovations in the market place. 

3. The responsibility to complain and inform business and other consumers of dissatisfaction with a product or service in a fair and honest manner. 

4. The responsibility to be an ethical consumer and to be fair by not engaging in dishonest practices which cost all consumers today. 

5. The responsibility to speak, to inform manufacturers and governments of needs and wants.

Hardly the children were left when the sports meet ended.

(i) प्रस्तुत कथन पुत्र-प्रेम शीर्षक कहानी में से लिया गया है। इस कथन का वक्ता वह युवक है जो
चैतन्यदास को मणिकर्णिका घाट पर मिला था। उसी घाट पर प्रस्तुत कथन कहा जा रहा है।

(ii) वक्ता द्वारा यह कथन अपने दिवंगत पिता की अंत्येष्टि के संदर्भ में कहा गया था।

(iii) युवक यह कथन धन के प्रति उपयोगितावादी दृष्टि को स्पष्ट करता है। वह कहना चाहता है कि धन जीवन के लिए होता है न कि जीवन धन के लिए। चैतन्यदास ने धन के प्रति लालची दृष्टि अपनाई थी।

(iv) वक्ता युवक बताता है कि पैसा हाथ का मैल है “यदि जिंदगी है, तो कमा खाऊँगा, मन में यह __ लालसा तो नहीं रह गई कि पिता को बचाने में कुछ कसर नहीं छोड़ी” यह सुनकर बाबू चैतन्यदास अपने पुत्र की अंत्येष्टि पर हज़ारों रुपये खर्च कर डालता है।

A musical note is one which leaves a pleasing effect on the ears. Such a sound is generated by periodic and regular vibrations. Whereas noise is a sound that produces an unpleasant effect on the ears.

A noise is produced by non-periodic and irregular vibrations accompanied by an abrupt change in frequency or wavelength.

(a) Central bank also acts as a clearing house for the settlement of accounts of commercial banks. A clearing house is an organization where mutual claims of banks on one another are offset, and a settlement is made by the payment of the difference. Central bank being a bankers’ bank keeps the cash balances of commercial banks and as such it becomes easier for the member banks to adjust or settle their claims against one another through the central bank. Suppose there are two banks, they draw cheques on each other. Suppose Bank A has to take Rs. 3,000 from bank B and has to pay Rs. 4,000 to B. At the clearing house, mutual claims are offset and bank A pays the balance of Rs. 1,000 to B and the account is settled. Clearing house function of the central bank leads to a good deal of economy in the use of cash and much of labour and inconvenience are avoided. 

(b) 1. High Costs : Air transport is a costly sendee. Its operational costs are too high. Middle class and poor people cannot affect its cash. 

2. Transportation : Transportation of all materials is not permissible by Air transport. Travellers cannot carry liquids, sharp objects while travelling. 

3. Huge Investments : For creating aviation facilities, huge investments are required. The cost of aeroplanes, construction and maintenance of aerodromes and control mechanism needs a capital expenditure. 

4. Unreliable : Most of the air transports are uncertain and the unreliable because these are controlled by weather condition. It is seriously affected by adverse weather- conditions. Fog, snow and heavy rain weather may cause cancellation of some flights. 

5. Small Carrying Capacity : The air crafts have small carrying capacity and therefore these are not suitable for canying bulky and cheaper goods. The load capacity cannot be increased as it is found in case of rails.

At point ‘A’, the elasticity of demand will be,

The lower segment of the line/upper segment of line = AK/0 = ∞

At point ‘B’ = BK/AB > 1 i.e. e_d > 1 

At point ‘L’ = LK /AK < 1 i.e. e_d < 1 

At point ‘K’ = 0/AK = 0 i.e. e_d = 0

Revaluation means a rise of domestic currency in relation to foreign currency in a fixed exchange rate whereas appreciation implies an increase in the external value of a currency.

Normal good: Demand will increase and the demand curve will shift towards the right.

An inferior good: Demand will decrease and the demand curve will shift towards left.

Usually, in the accounting sense, the total receipts in the balance of payments account must be equal to the total payments. Thus the balance of payment is always balanced. But this account may or may not be balanced. If total autonomous receipts exceed the total spendings of foreign exchange in a given year, there arises a ‘surplus’ in the transaction account of the balance of payments. On the other hand, if receipts fall short of spending, there occurs a ‘deficit’ in the autonomous account of the balance of payments. In both cases, the balance of payments is out of equilibrium, i.e., there will be an unfavorable balance of payment.

The supply function is a statement which states the relationship between the quantity supplied of a commodity and its determinants. The supply function may be written as

where Sn is the quantity, supplied of a commodity ‘n’; If is a symbol showing the relationship between the supply of a commodity ‘n’ and all its determinants, Pn is the price of commodity ‘n’ : P1 … Pn-1 are the prices of commodities other than n. Cuf is the goal of the firms; Fi … Fn; is an expression of prices of different factors of production; T is the technique of production; E is a symbol of expectation of future prices, Cu+ is the taxation policy of the government; N is the natural factors and Nstands for means of transportation.

Reasons for downward sloping demand curve:

• Law of Diminishing Marginal Utility: According to this law, as consumption of a commodity increases, marginal utility of each successive unit goes on diminishing to a consumer. Accordingly, for every additional unit to be purchased, the consumer is willing to pay less and less price. 

• Income Effect: Income effect refers to change in quantity demanded when real income of the buyer changes owing to change in price of the commodity. With a fall in price, real income increases. Accordingly, demand for the commodity expands.

• Substitution Effect: Substitution effect refers to substitution of one commodity for the other when it becomes relatively cheaper. Thus, when own price of commodity-X falls, it becomes cheaper in relation to commodity-Y. Accordingly, X is substituted for Y. Tea and coffee are substitutes. With a fall in the price of tea, it is substituted in place of coffee. It is expansion of demand due to the substitution effect. 

• Size of Consumer Group: When price of a commodity falls, many more buyers can afford to buy it. Accordingly, demand expands. 

• Different Uses: A good may have several uses. Milk, for example, is used for making curd, cheese and butter. If the price of milk reduces it will be put to different uses. Accordingly, the demand for milk expands.

Disaccharides with their structural units

Cell Differentiation : The cells derived from root apical meristem (RAM) and shoot apical meristem (SAM) and cambium differentiate, mature to perform specific functions. This act leading to maturation is termed differentiation. They undergo a few or major structural changes both in their cell walls and protoplasm. For example, to form, a trachery element the cells lose its protoplasm but develops a very strong, elastic, lignocellulosic secondary cell wall is best suited to carry water to long distances even under extreme tension. Similarly, cells designated to be mesophyll come to possess many chloroplasts so as to, perform photosynthesis. On one hand, a parenchyma in hydrophytes develop large schizogenous interspaces for mechanical support, buoyancy and aeration, but on the other hand, in a potato tuber (or perennating organs) develops more amyloplasts. 

Dedifferentiation : In plants, the living differentiated cells can regain the capacity to divide mitotically under certain conditions. The sum of events, that bestow this capacity to divide once again, are termed dedifferentiation. A dedifferentiated tissue
can act as meristem (e.g., interfascicular vascular cambium, wound meristem, cork cambium). 

Redifferentiation: The product of dedifferentiated cells/tissue which lose the ability to divide are called redifferentiate cells/tissues and the event, redifferentiation. However, the growth in plants is open, and even differentiation in plants is open, because, e g., the same apical meristem cells give rise to xylem phloem, fibers, etc., cells/tissues arising out of same meristem have different structures at maturity. The final structure at maturity of a cell/ tissue arising out of same meristem is determined by the location of the cell within. 

Vascular Differentiation : Vascular tissues, xylem and phloem, are differentiated from meristematic cells, procambium, and vascular cambium. Auxin and cytokinin have been considered essential for vascular tissue differentiation: this is supported by recent molecular and genetic analyses.

dNTP lacks-OH at 2’ position of ribose while ddNTP lack-OH both at 2 and 3’ position of ribose sugar. Using ddNTP’s during sequencing, chain elongation can be terminated at 3’ position of ribose.

(i) Chloroplast 

(ii) Demography 

(iii) Allele 

(iv) Hypertonic 

(v) Cerebrospinal Fluid

(i) Three Functions of Red Cross: 

(1) To extend relief and help to the victims of any calamity such as flood, fire, famine and earthquake etc. 

(2) To produce and supply blood for the needy victims of war or other calamities. 

(3) To extend all possible first aid in any accident. 

(ii) Two microbes and diseases caused by them : 

(1) Plasmodium — Malaria. 

(2) HIV Virus —AIDS. 

(iii) Illiteracy, Traditional beliefs, Mortality rate, religious and social culture and desire for a male child are some of the reasons, why the growth of population has not been appreciably checked in India.

(i) Pituitary gland is popularly known as ‘Master gland’ as it seems to control all other endocrine gland. 

(ii) Animals owe their existence to chlorophyll as animals are hetrotrophs. Animals derive their food from plant and plants can prepare their food with the help of chlorophyll by the process of photosynthesis. 

(iii) Twins may not be identical as in the case of fraternal twins which are produced from two eggs. In this two eggs are released from ovaries at a time and both may get fertilized to produce two individuals. 

(iv) Herbaceous plants growing in well watered soils are found to wilt on a hot day. It is due to the fact that in such cases the rate of transpiration during day time exceeds the rate’of-absorption of water by the roots. The cells therefore lose turgidity. In the evening or during night, the stomata are constricted and the temperature is not high; therefore there is no loss of water through transpiration and the turgidity of the leaves is re-acquired and they stand out erect. 

(v) Throat infection can lead to ear infection as both throat and ear are connected with each other by Eustachian tube.

(i) The technical term for the condition of cell A is Turgid cell and for the condition of cell B is plasmolysed cell or flaccid cell. 

(ii) Cell A was placed in water solution where as cell B was placed in strong sugar solution before being viewed under the microscope. 

(iii) The root hair cell will resemble with cell A in the condition when the field is over flooded. The root hair cell will resemble with cell B in the case of excessive application of fertilizers in the fields. 

(iv) Root Pressure is responsible for the movement of water from the root hair cell to the xylem of the root. Root pressure is built up due to cell to cell osmosis in the root tissues. As one turgid cell presses the next cell, the force of the flow of water increases inward. When the water reaches the xylem vessels, it enters the pores of their thick walls with considerable force. 

(v) Cell to cell difference of osmotic pressure helps and turgor pressure in the movement of water up the xylem of the root.

(i) (1) Mutation: Sudden changes in one or more genes in the progeny, which normally may not have existed in the parents, grand parents or even great grand parents. Example: Albinism (total loss of skin pigment). 

(2) Homologous Chromosomes: A pair of corresponding chromosomes of the same Size and shape, one from each parents. 

(3) Alleles: Allele is the alternative form of a gene occupying the same position on a chromosome and affecting the same characteristic but in two alternative ways. Example : The free and attached ear lobe alleles of the ear lobe character. 

(ii) Dihybrid Ratio: The dihybrid ratio is 9 : 3 : 3 : 1. Mendel’s 3rd law i.e., ‘Law of Independent Assortment’ explains the dihybrid ratio. This law states that when there are two pairs of contrasting characters, the distribution of the members of one pair into the gametes is independent of the distribution of the other pair. 

(iii) The three main reasons for the sharp rise in human population in the world are as follows: 

(1) Better health care: There are more health care centres, hospitals and practicing doctors available for help to all age groups. 

(2) Food shortages minimized: Due to green revolution, more food is produced and stored. There are very few starvation deaths. 

(3) Large scale immunization: There has been large scale immunization against fatal diseases, to protect the infants from death.

Multiple Ovulation Embryo Transfer Technology (MOET) is a programme for herd improvement. Different steps in this method are :

(i) A cow is administered hormone (like FSH) to induce follicular maturation and super-ovulation, i.e., 6-8 eggs in one cycle. 

(ii) The cow is either mated with the selected superior bull or artificially inseminated. 

(iii) The fertilised eggs at 8-32 cell stages are recovered non-surgically and transferred to surrogate mothers. 

(iv) Now, the genetic mother is available for another round of super-ovulation. 

(v) This technology has been used for cattle, sheep, rabbit, buffalo, mare etc. 

(vi) High milk-yielding breeds of females and high quality meat-lean meat, with little fat yielding bulls have been bred successfully to obtain better breed and increase the herd size in short time.

(i) Multiple Alleles : Most genes occur in two alternative forms, both controlling the same character and occupy the same locus in homologous chromosomes. These different form of the same gene are called alleles. However, some genes may occur in more than two allelic forms and they are called multiple alleles. A set of such multiple alleles may contain 3 to 20 or even more members which occupy the same locus in homologous chromosomes. In such a set of multiple alleles one member is always dominant and one recessive to all others. An individual carry only two such alleles e.g., ABO blood groups.

(ii) Artificial method to control population : 

The unreliable the natural methods of contraception and are replaced by artificial methods :

(a) Contraceptive pills : Birth control pills which contain hormones, prevent a woman from getting pregnant if used regularly. Contraceptive pills also help women to have regular menstrual cycles and reduce the chances of anemia.

(b) Barrier contraception : Most popular barriers are the condom and the diaphragm that keep the sperm coming in contact with eggs in female reproductive system.

(c) Intra uterine device (IUD) : It is small device placed in the uterus to prevent pregnancy. Once the medicated IUD is in place, it can provide birth control for 5 to 10 years.

(d) Injection for birth control: Vaccination is another method of birth control. This vaccine is effective for three months and has to be applied four times a year.

Stem cells are found in all multicellular organisms and are capable of dividing to form new cells which can the differentiated into various types of specialized cells.

Role of Stem cells in Medical treatment: 

1. The stem cells have been used for treatment of various cancers like leukemia and lymphoma. 

2. It may also be used for treatment of severe autoimmune diseases like multiple sclerosis. 

3. Study of human embryonic stem cells will yield information about the complex events that occur during human development. 

4. Embryonic stem cells may be directed to differentiate into specific cell types, offer the possibility of renewable source of replacement cells and tissues to treat diseases like Alzheimer’s disease, spinal cord injury, stroke, bums, diabetes, arthritis and heart diseases.

Sex-determination in honeybee involves haplodiploidy.

Haplodiploidy : It is a type of sex determination in which the male is haploid while the female is diploid. Haplodiploidy occurs in some insects like bees, ants and wasps. Male insects are haploid because they develop parthenogenetically from unfertilized eggs. Meiosis does not occur during the formation of sperms. Females grow from fertilized eggs and are hence diploid. Queen Bee picks up all the sperms from the drone during nuptial flight and stores the same in her seminal vesicle. It does not fertilise the eggs which are to develop into males or drones. Workers and future Queen Bee develop from fertilised eggs and are sexually female. The difference between them lies in the nourishment they receive (royal jelly for queen and bee bread for workers).

(i) Placenta helps in exchange of gases CO₂ and O₂ between foetus and mother’s blood. 

(ii) It provides nutrition to the developing foetus from mother’s blood. 

(iii) It helps in excretion of urea, from foetus blood into mother’s blood. 

(iv) It acts as endocrine gland producing hormones, to maintain pregnancy and helps in parturition and prepare mammary glands for lactation.

(i) MRI-Mapping of brain tissues and study tissue metabolism. 

(ii) Ultrasound – Used in diagnosis of various diseases of the heart, gall bladder, liver, pancreas, uterus and ovary. 

(iii) ECG – Diagnosis of various heart diseases like coronary thrombosis, myocardial ischaemia, etc.

Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase conducted experiments on virus T2 bacteriophage that attacks the common bacterium Escherichia coli. The bacteriophage has two chemical components i.e., protein and DNA. Protein forms the external structures like head, sheath and tail fibres and a DNA molecule is in the head. The phage attacks E. coli by attaching with its tail fibres to the bacterial wall and injecting its genetic material into the bacterial cell to produce new phages.

Hershey and Chase labelled the DNA and protein components of the phage separately with specific radioactive tracers and then followed these components through the life cycle of the phage. They developed two strains of the virus, one with labelled protein and other with labelled DNA. Almost all proteins contain sulphur which is not found in DNA while all DNA molecules contain phosphorus which is not found in proteins. The T2 phages grown in the presence of radioactive sulphur (35S) has labelled proteins and T2 phages grown in presence of radioactive phosphorus (32P) had labelled DNA.

After developing these strains, Hershey and Chase allowed each strain to infect the bacteria. Soon after infection, the bacterial cells were gently agitated in a blender to separate the adhering phage particles. It was observed that only radioactive 32P was found in the bacterial cells and 32S was present only in viral coats in the surrounding medium and not inside the bacterial cells. When they studied the viral progeny for radioactivity, it was found that it had only 32P and no 35S .

The results clearly show that only DNA is the genetic material and not protein coat.

Single cell protein (SCP) refers to dried microbial cells or total protein extracted from pure microbial cell culture. SCP is not pure protein. It refers to the whole cells of bacteria, yeast, filamentous fungi or algae. It also contains carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, mineral salts and vitamins. The composition depends upon the organism and the substrate on which it grows, sources – Chlorella (algae), Rhodopseudomonas capsulate (bacteria), Trichoroderma (fungi). Significance SCP can be used as food supplement to humans food or animals as feed. It has application in animal nutrition as fattening calves, poultry and fish breeding. In food, it is used as aroma carriers, vitamin carriers, emulsifying aids and to improve nutrition value of baked products, soups, in ready to serve meals and in the technical field in paper processing, leather processing and as foam stabilisers.

(i) Placentation : It is the arrangement of ovules inside the ovary.

(ii) Parthenocarpy : The formation of fruits without fertilization is called parthenocarpy e.g., Banana. 

(iii) Diffusion : It is the movement of molecules or ions of solid, liquid or gas from their higher concentration to their lower concentration area.

Temperature coefficient of resistance is defined as the change in resistance per unit original resistance at 0°C per degree centigrade rise of temperature.

(B) Oxidising agent

(C) Zinc oxide

(A) Carbon monoxide

(A) Liquid carbon tetrachloride

(C) They can undergo both substitution as well as addition reactions.

1. Sodium chloride gives white ppt. with silver nitrate solution while sodium nitrate does not. 

2. Dense white fumes observed when a rod dipped in NH₃ is brought to the mouth of t.t containing HCl gas. Whereas no such fumes observed in case of H₂S gas. 

3. Ethene gas decolorises the purple colour of KMnO₄ whereas no change observed with ethane. 

4. Add NaOH solution to both the solutions. White ppt. observed with Zn(NO₃)₂ solution which is soluble in excess. Whereas white ppt. observed with Ca(N)₃)₂ which is sparingly soluble in water. 

5. SO₂ turns acidified potassium dichromate solution green whereas CO₂ does not change the colour

(B) Ammonium chloride

Among the period 2 elements, the element which has high electron affinity is Fluorine

Among the period 2 elements, the element which has high electron affinity is fluorine.

The relation between magnetic susceptibility and relative permeability is μ_r = 1 + Xm 

Therefore, μ_r = 1 + 0.0001 = 1.0001

[∴ Xm = 0.0001]

By connecting a low resistance in parallel with galvanometer. This low resistance is called the shunt resistance.

Curie temperature : The temperature above which a ferromagnetic substance becomes paramagnetic is called curie temperature

When water is sprinkled on the road, the road absorbed the water and helps to reduce the heat from the road caused by the hot summer. It also helps to remove dust particles.

COPRA: Consumer Protection Act, 1986 This Act recognises six consumer rights. 

These rights are: Right to be protected, to be informed, right to choose, to be heard, to seek redressal, to consumer education. It has also established a redressal system unique in the world.

(a) Flux: A flux is a substance that is added to the charge in a furnace to remove the gangue.

(b) Gangue: Earthly impurities including silica, mud etc., associated with the ore are called gangue.

(c) Slag: It is the fusible product formed when flux reacts with impurities during the extraction of metals.

(d) Smelting: Smelting is the process of reducing the roasted oxide ore and removing the gangue with the help of an appropriate flux added with the ore.

(i) Restriction enzymes recognize and cleaves a specific short DNA sequence at recognition site. They are used in r-DNA technology as molecular scissors. DNA ligases are the enzymes used to join cut ends of vector DNA and the target DNA by their sticky ends. 

(ii) Shuttle vectors is a plasmid containing vector, that can replicate in two different organisms- prokaryote and eukaryote, due to the presence of two different origin of replication i.e, Ori Euk, Ori E-coli. 

Expression vectors in addition to incorporate desired gene into the host cell, also help to produce high amount of proteins enclosed by the DNA insert, because of presence of promoter sequence and a terminator sequence along with insert.