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Carcinogen (harmful) mutation/chromosomal aberration/damage to DNA /normal cells converted to neoplastic.

Detailed Answer: 

X-rays are invasive, i.e., ionising radiations causes harm to individuals. Hence, restricted use to these is generally preferred.

Gene cloning refers to a process in which a gene of interest is ligated to a vector. The recombinant DNA thus produced is introduced in a host cell by transformation. Each cell gets one DNA molecule and when the transformed cell grows to a bacterial colony, each cell in the colony has a copy of the gene.

Lysing enzymes are used to open up the cell to obtain DNA along with other macromolecules for genetic experiments. Bacterial cells are treated with lysozyme, plant cells are treated with cellulase, and fungal cells are treated with chitinase for lysing.

(i) No, the scientists should not continue such efforts because only a limited amount of milk could be obtained from each cow in her short life span or before it dies. Moreover no compromise should be made with lives of the cows for the production of medicinal milk. Killing of animals in such a way or reducing their life span for the benefit of mankind is not ethical also. 

(ii) Different communities and various organizations oppose such acts. Government also has certain laws with regard to monitoring of genetic engineering researches for maintaining ethics of life. 

(iii) Respect for living beings, empathy towards animals.

(a) Separation , purification 

(b) Downstream processing 

(c) Quality control testing.

Desirable traits in transgenic chicken are low levels of fat and cholesterol, high protein containing eggs, in vivo resistance to viral and coccidial diseases, better feed efficiency and better meat quality.

Chemical engineering technology is used to maintain sterile environment for manufacturing products like vaccines, antibodies, enzymes, organic acids, vitamins, therapeutics, etc.

Steps in rDNA technology:

i. Isolation of DNA.

ii. Fragmentation of DNA by restriction endonucleases.

iii. Isolation of the desired DNA fragments.

iv. Amplification of the gene of interest.

v. Ligation of the DNA fragment into a vector using DNA ligase.

vi. Transfer of recombinant DNA into the host organism.

vii. Culturing the host cell on a suitable medium on a large scale.

viii. Extraction of the desired product.

ix. Downstream processing of the products as finished products are ready for marketing.

Using Agrobacterium vectors, the nematode specific genes are introduced into the host plant. The introduction of DNA initiates RNAi and thus silences the specific m RNA of Meloidogyne incognita. As a consequence, the parasite can not survive in the transgenic host expressing specific interfering RNA.

1. Primer 

2. dCTP, d ATP, d GTP, d TTP

Elution is not a gene transfer method

Elution is not a gene transfer method

1. The major step involved in PCR:

Denaturation – It involves the separation of DNA strands

Annealing – The double strands are synthesised from free nucleotides by the action of DNA polymerase.

Extension – The length of the strands are increased as a result of addition of more and more nucleotides. Thus DNA amplied up to 1 billion copies.

2. Taq polymarase

PCR cylinder works at high temperature. Hence thermo stable enzyme is used.

(b) Spooling

(c) Extenstion of primer end on the template DNA