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Traditional liberalism:

It is also called negative liberalism. The form of traditional liberalism was negative. Its beginning took place with an aim to oppose tyrannical monarchy and feudalism for political freedom of an individual and also against rampant dominance of church and feudalism.

And as such, traditional liberalism emphasis-ed on rationality, freedom and individualism of a person.

The followers of traditional liberalism thought freedom as lack of restrictions and they considered the state to be against the freedom of an individual. Traditional liberalism, while accepting state as a necessary evil, advocates for the reduction of scope and rights of a state.

It emphasis-ed the opposition of tyrannical and arbitrary laws, faith in laws and national system of administration, natural rights of an individual. This doctrine also justifies struggle and revolt against the system of administration if there arises some compulsion for this.

Adam Smith (1723 to 1790): 

Adam Smith is referred to as the as the Father of Economics. In his famous creation, “Wealth of Nations” (1776), he supports Individualism and policy of non – interference and he writes that every individual has a simple nature of business which compels him to earn more profit. A laborious person encourages selfishness but also promotes general interests, because of which, the government, businessmen and masters get benefited. And as a result of this, wealth of the nation increases.

dam Smith terms industrial and business freedom as natural freedom and underlines its importance for national growth. With regard to industry and business, the government should adopt the policy of Laissez Faire. In this situation, a government has only three duties left – safety of a state from foreign attack, enforcement of justice and works of public construction.

Bentham (1748 to 1832): 

Bentham was an utilitarian thinker, who presented a logic that the theories like absolute rights, absolute sovereignty and absolute justice do not match with reality on the ground. There is only one criteria applied in relation to human being. Hence, public policy should be based on a single point criterion and that is “maximum benefit for the maximum persons”. According to Bentham, nature has put an individual under two powers, happiness and sorrow.

The works which increase happiness and decrease sorrow to an individual are useful deeds; and the works which decrease happiness and increase sorrow are useless deeds. The duty of a government is also to accomplish this objective, because every individual is the best decider of his interests. Hence, the government should formulate some policies in order to ward off independent hindrances coming in the way of the activities.

It is also the duty of the government to impose proper restriction on the people and punish the guilty criminals, but the government should not interfere in the working of those people who obey the rules. In this way, Bentham supports both individualism and interference.

Herbert Spencer (1820 – 1903): 

Spencer was a thinker from England, who pushed the principal of minimal administration to the peak. He imagined a society in the form of a living creature. He says that the if any organ of the living creature stops functioning, then it decimation is beneficial to the society.

Those who are capable people of the society do not have the duty to keep on inflicting loss to the society by giving shelter to the incapable. Spencer has made Charles Darwin’s theory as the base that in the struggle of life, that there is the “Survival of the fittest”.

According to Spencer, it is a hindrance for the state to help the poor and downtrodden of the society in context social development. Hence, such efforts are condemn able. In the sense of progress, Spencer says that all the individuals should be left free for their own progress and obviously the capable will steer forward and the incapable will lag behind in the race of progress.

If a state starts helping the weak and incapable people in the name of public welfare, them this very task shall deem to be an interference to the natural system. A state should execute only those works by which the freedom of an individual is sustained.

In order to appreciate and understand misfortune, the children at Miss Beam’s school were made to share in the misfortune. Each term, every child had one blind day, one lame day, one deaf day, one injured day and one dumb day. During the blind day, the eyes of that child were bandaged completely and the child was on his/her honour not to peep, In fact, the child was made to sleep with the bandage so that he woke up blind. Hence on this day, the child needed help with everything.

It is frightening for the girl to be blind as her head constantly ached from worrying that she would get hurt.

The children are left on their honour on not to peep.

According to liberals, an individual is an accomplishment.

Traditional (negative) and modern (positive) liberalism have the following differences:

(1) Difference on the basis of development: 

The development of ancient (traditional) liberalism took place between 16thto 18th century, whereas modern liberalism developed from 19th century to date. 

(2) Difference on the basis of reason of advent: 

At the back of the development of traditional liberalism, there were many reasons of reactions against autocratic monarchy, feudalism and papal authority, whereas modern positive liberalism emerged and spread as a reaction against capitalist system and Marxism. 

(3) Difference on the basis of concept towards state: 

Traditional liberalism considers a state as a necessary evil, whereas positive liberalism does not consider a state as a necessary evil. It accepts the state as a moral and welfare institution. 

(4) Difference on outlook of rights: 

Traditional liberalism accepts an individual’s rights as natural, whereas modern liberalism accepts the rights of an individual to be provided and protected by the state.

Meaning of Liberalism: 

Liberalism is an important and progressive thought of modern era. It is not only a line of thought, but also a lifestyle and movement, which adopts a new thought process rejecting the conservative line of thought. The word ‘Liberalism’ is derived from the Latin word ‘Liberals’, which means ‘freedom’. In this way, liberalism is a line of thought which gives optimum freedom to an individual in every field of life- contemplation, expression, interaction, faith, analysis and cooperation, etc. Freedom is the core element of liberalism.

Types of Liberalism: 

On the basis of historical development, liberalism can be divided into two parts: 

• Traditional liberalism 
• Modern liberalism.

1. Traditional liberalism: 

It is also called negative liberalism because the previous form of liberalism was negative. This started with the demand of freedom of the individual from autocratic political system and feudalism. In traditional liberalism, a state is thought to be against the freedom of an individual because there becomes suppression of freedom, equality and rights of an individual due to negative activities of a state. 

It was limited to the demand of constitutional protection of individual rights. In due course of time, ancient liberalism emerged with the demand of religious freedom, tolerance, constitutional and political rights. Jeremy Bentham, Adam Smith, Herbert Spencer, etc. are thought to be the main supporters of traditional liberalism.

2. Modern Liberalism: 

In the 19th century, liberal thinkers incorporated certain amendments and changes in traditional liberalism in accordance with the demand of time. In this, there was an emphasis on positive role of a state in place of its negative role, and as such, it is called positive liberalism. In modern liberalism, there was a condition of freedom for the welfare of an individual, especially the weak and poor section of the society.

Unlike traditional liberalism, modern liberalism believes that a state should render a positive role in controlling and balancing mutual relations of its people. The supporters of modern liberalism do not accept a state as a necessary evil. They accept a state as a positive and welfare institution for the development and safety of the interest of people. The main modern liberals are John Stuart Mill, T.H. Green, L.T. Hobhouse, H.J. Laski and R.M. Maclver.

Democratic system of administration.

The main natural rights of an individual:

• Life. 
• wealth. 
• freedom.

As a reaction to the form of traditional liberalism, the modern outlook of liberalism emerged and developed.

Positive liberalism has faith in moral and public welfare form of a state.

• Glorious Revolution of England.
• State Revolution of France.

(a) Public welfare state

Peter is the gardener in Miss Beam’s school. The strange thing written about him is that he is hundreds of years old.

• Civil liberty. 
• personal freedom. 
• economic freedom. 
• financial freedom. 
• domestic freedom. 
• social freedom.
• political freedom. 
• Racial and national freedom.
• International freedom.

Hob house was the main supporter for freedom of an individual.

(a) Rani: Why are you turning on the radio ?

Ravi: I am going to listen to the news.

(b) Rani: Oh, I can’t buy this book. I have no money.

Ravi: Don’t worry. I will lend you some.

(c) Rani: Look at those dark clouds.

I Ravi: I think it is going to rain.

(d) Rani: What shall we have for dinner ?

Ravi: I can’t decide.

Rani: Make up your mind.

Ravi: All right, then. We will have fried rice and dry beans.

(e) Rani: Why are you filling the kettle with water ?

Ravi: I am going to make coffee.

(f) Rani: We need some bread and butter for breakfast.

Ravi: All right. I will go to the bakery and get some.
(Before he goes out, Ravi talks to their father.)

Ravi: I am going to get some bread and butter. Do you want anything from the bakery?

Father: Yes, I want some salt biscuits.

Ravi: Fine, I will get you a packet.

B. resembling the Great Stone Face.

(i) General Blood-and-Thunder rose to his present position in defence from a soldier. He desired to return to his native valley. The residents of the valley said that he bore the likeness of the Great Stone Face. His childhood friends also said that the General had always looked like the Great Stone Face. It made people believe ‘General Blood-and-Thunder’ was their man. 

(ii) Ernest compared the face of Blood-and-thunder with the Great Stone Face. He could not recognize any similarity between them. His heart assured him that the General was not the right person he was waiting for. So Ernest concluded that the greatest and the noblest man of his time bearing the resemblance to the Great Stone Face had yet to come.

General Blood and Thunder rose to the position of a commander from a soldier. He desired to return to his native valley. The residents of the valley said that he bore the likeness of the Great Stone Face. His childhood friends also said that the General had always looked like the Great Stone Face. It made people believe ‘General Blood-and- Thunder’ was their man.

1. shall phone, get

2. will be, are

3. rains, shall not

4. see, will not recognise

5. shall write, are

D. All of these three

B. assrnne various shapes.

B. a teacher to Ernest.

Gather gold was a young man when he had left his native valley and had settled at a distant seaport. He had settled there as a shopkeeper. He was very sharp in business matters and thus became very rich in a short span of time.

(i) By common consent, Ernest turned out to be like the Great Stone Face. He looked wise, gentle and kind just like the stone face. 

(ii) No, Ernest did not believe that the old prophecy had come true. Even though everybody had agreed that he was the likeness of the Great Stone Face, he himself hoped that some wiser and better man than himself would appear, bearing a resemblance to the Great Stone Face.

D. Both ‘A’ and ‘B’

A. the man who was to come some day in the valley, according to the prophecy.

D. Both ‘A’ and ‘B’

The Right option is :(c) assumed

(1) The white hairs on Ernest’s head were as numerous as the wise thoughts in his mind.

(2) And Ernest had not continued to be obscure.

(3) While reading, he lifted his eyes to the mountain.

(4) Though the face seemed to smile, it did not answer.

(5) You have read these poems, haven’t you?

(6) He not only shook his head but also sighed.

(7) But my life, dear Ernest, has hardly corresponded with my thoughts.

C. the valley owed much of its fertility to the Great Stone Face.

(i) Poet

(ii) Ernest

(iii) Poet

(iv) Ernest

(v) Ernest

(vi) Poet

(vii) Ernest

(viii) Poet

(ix) Ernest

(x) Ernest

A. he should live to see the man who was going to come some day.

(1) They were received with gentle sincerity by Ernest.

(2) A new poet had been granted to this earth by God.

(3) The greater part of his life had been spent by him in distant cities.

(4) The good old man was found holding a book in his hand by him.

(5) His finger was laid on the book by the poet.

(6) All through life the fulfillment of a prophecy has been awaited by me.

(7) From there they could see the Great Stone Face.

The Great Stone Face was a work of nature. It was formed on the side of a mountain by some huge rocks. They had been thrown together in such a position so that, when viewed from some distance, they resembled the face of a human face. If the spectator approached too near, the outline of the face would disappear into a heap of gigantic rocks. It was the belief of many people that the valley owed much of its fertility to the kind face of the Great Stone that was continually looking over it.

1. At sunset, Ernest spoke to a group of neighbours in the open air.

2. The words of Ernest’s speech agreed with his thoughts which had reality and depth of the life that he lived.

3. The word ‘strain’ in this passage means ‘theme’ or ‘subject’ of the poetry.

4. Having heard Ernest’s speech, the poet’s eyes filled with tears and he realised that Ernest was a worthy sage.

(b) stared at

The poet had no misunderstanding about his own worth. He admitted that his own life was different from his poems and his dreams were hollow.

A. they might see a man some time with exactly such a face as that of the stone.

Earnest was a humble, hardworking and thoughtful person. He was not an unknown person unlike others. As he grew old, he had become well known personality beyond limit of valley. College professors and even active men of cities came from far to meet him. Earnest received those people with gentle sincerity and spoke with them freely with open heart. He led a life of good deeds and with self-less love for others. He used to deliver thoughtful words from the depth of his heart. His words had power since they agreed with the reality of his life. While talking to his audience, his face would brighten and shine upon them, as with as mild evening light. In this way Earnest was different from others in the valley.

1. while the Great Face smiled on him, he told his mother that he wished that it could speak, for it looked so very kindly that its voice must indeed be pleasant. Then he added that If he ever saw a man with such a face, he should love him very much.

2. His mother answered that If an old prophecy should come to pass, they might see a man some time, with exactly such a face as that.

Then Ernest asked her curiously what prophecy she meant. And he eagerly inquired of his mother requesting her to tell him about it.

‘To believe is to see angels dancing among the clouds.’ (Here, the angels have been given the human quality of ‘dancing’.)

Young Ernest gazed at the Great Stone Face. It smiled to him. Ernest wished that it could speak because it looked very kindly. He thought its voice must be pleasant. He would love the man dearly whoever bore such face.