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1. Some persons and associations opposed and filed a number of cases in the courts regarding the reservation of jobs for backward classes. They appealed to the courts to declare the order invalid and stop its implementation. 

2. The Supreme Court of India bunched all these cases together. This case was known as the ‘Indira Sawhney and others Vs Union of India case’. 

3. Eleven judges of the Supreme Court heard arguments of both sides. By a majority, the Supreme Court judges in 1992 declared that this order of the Government of India was valid. 

4. At the same time the Supreme Court asked the government to modify its original order. It said that well-to-do persons among the backward classes should be excluded from getting the benefit of reservation. 

5. Accordingly, the Department of Personnel and Training issued another Office Memorandum on September 8, 1993. The dispute thus came to an end and this policy has been followed since then. 

The subjects which are administered by both central and state governments is called concurrent list.

V.P. Singh lead the National Front in 1989.

Religious fundamentalism is one of the National problem that we come across.

The President of India declare the National Emergency.

Identity politics is not too old concept. L.A. Kauffman traced the origin of identity politics to Student Non violent co-ordinating committee of U.S. in early 1960’s. The identity politics originated and got its legitimacy in U.S. between 1950-60 in the movements of lesbians, black civil rights, wave of feminists etc., The movement became prominent only in 1980’s.

with Lesbian Gay Bi-Sexual Transgender (LGBT) movement. It is notably found in class movements like feminist movements disability movements, ethnic movements, minority movements. Globalisation, Liberalisation and the setback to the socialistic principles led to the rise of identity’politics.

Crisis of identity is the fundamental reason for the rise of identity struggles in several parts of the world. Each individual, every culture, every language, religion and region are unique in their own way. A community may be poor economically but rich in cultural heritage and loves to retain its identity. A person can forget the loss of wealth but does not forget his inherent caste, culture, language, religion and region.

Loss identity means loss of one’s entity. According to Universal Declaration of Human Rights-1948, every citizen irrespective of nationality, economic standard, lesbian or conventionalist has an inseparable human right of equal opportunities, treatment, practice, participation, etc.

At present the political parties big or small, national or regional are appealing to the voters on sectarian basis namely language, region, caste, religion, river, race, etc. Government announce popular programmes on the basis of caste and community, gender, local or territorial basis. Identity politics is a pattern of belongingness, a search for comfort, an approach to community. 

It attempts to attain empowerment, representation and recognition of social groups.

Coalition governments are politically unstable. It can also called as political arranged system. In this system, no party gets the absolute majority and formed the government with the help of various political parties by making common agenda. Due to the presence of various parties believing in different ideologies and policies, political consistency is difficult to achieve.

Here the leader of the coalition government has to compromise with all the allies partners, otherwise they will withdraw their support for simple reason often and often. The leaders of the coalition government have lost the power in the coalition politics since 1977 for several times. For example the first coalition government which came to power in 1977 under the leadership of Morarji Desai lost the power within 2 years.

In the same manner Y.P. Singh who ’lead the National Front in 1989 lost the power within 20 months. Like wise H.D. Devegowda formed the coalition government in 1996 loses the power with in 10 months. So coalition government cannot be in power for full term.

Central government is empowered to exercise the residuary powers.

1. The Prime Minister and the Cabinet are institutions that take all important policy decisions. 

2. The Civil Servants, working together, are responsible for taking steps to implement the ministers’ decisions. 

3. Supreme Court is an institution where disputes between citizens and the government are finally settled. 

Some persons have to take decisions on how to go about governmental activities. Others have to implement these decisions. If disputes arise on these decisions or in their implementation, there should be some one to determine what is right and what is wrong. To attend to all these tasks, several arrangements are made in all modern democracies. Such arrangements are called institutions. 

1. Parliament is the final authority for making laws in any country. This task of law making or legislation is so crucial that these assemblies are called legislatures.

2. Parliaments all over the world exercise some control over these who run the government. In some countries like India this control is direct and full.

3. Those who run the government can take decisions only, so long as they enjoy support of the Parliament.

4. Parliaments control all the money that governments have.

5. The Parliament is the highest forum of discussion.

(i) Parliament can make new laws, change existing laws, or abolish existing laws and make new ones in their place.

(ii) Those who run the government can take decisions only so long as they enjoy support of the Parliament.

(iii) Parliament controls all the money that government has, Public money can be spent only when the Parliament sanctions it.

(iv) Parliament is the highest forum of discussion and debate on public issues and national policy.

The legislative relations between union and state governments are mentioned as follows:

(a) The union list: It contains 100 subjects like defence, External affairs, Currency and Coinage, Atomic Energy, Science and Technology, Customs on which the central government has supreme law making powers.

(b) The state list: It consists of 63 subjects like Police, Health, Agriculture, Local Self Governments, Road Transport, etc. On these subjects, state governments have law making powers.

(c) The concurrent list: It comprises 52 subjects like Marriage and Divorce, Civil Procedure and Criminal Laws, Preventive Detention. Trust and Trusties, Education, etc. On these subjects both the union and state can legislate. In case of disputes, the will of the union government prevails.

(d) Residuary powers: Powers not mentioned in the above three lists are called residuary powers. These powers are given to the union government.

Situation during emergencies :

(a) National emergency: Article 353 of the India Constitution, the President is empowers to declare National emergency when threat of external aggression. It can be imposed for the protection of unity and integrity of the country. Till now 1 it had been imposed for thrice. In such circumstances, individual rights are suspended.

(b) State Emergency: Article 356 of the Indian Constitution authorizes the President to declare the Presidential rale on the recommendation of the Governor during the breakdown of the constitutional machinery in that state.

(c) Financial Emergency: Article 360 of the Indian Constitution empowers the President to declare financial emergency if the financial conditions of the nation are precarious.

Administrative relations between Centre and State Governments : 

(a) President of India has the power to appoint the Governors of all the States and Union Territories. 

(b) President by having jurisdiction over the appointment of the Judges of Supreme Court and High Courts, Integrated Judicial System is maintained throughout the country. 

(c) Bills passed in State Legislatures during President’s rule are required to get the approval of the President. 

(d) The members of All India Services who serve both the Union and State governments are finally regulated by Union. 

(e) The Union government issues directions to the states regarding law and order, national unity, safety and security. 

(f) Parliament is empowered to appoint Inter State Commerce Commission to maintain cordial relations among the states. 

(g) To ensure the rapid and balanced development of the country, National Development Council is created. 

(h) Planning Commission advises all the states to raise the standard of living of the people.

Financial relations between centre and state governments :

(a) A Finance Commission has constituted to determine the distribution of financial resources between the union and states. 

(b) Parliament may by law establish a contingency fund to meet unforeseen expenditure. 

(c) Some duties are leviable by the centre, but they are to be collected and entirely appropriated by the states. 

(d) There are some taxes which are both levied and collected by the union but distributed among equally. 

(e) The Parliament determines the quantum of assistance every year to the needy states, tribal .areas, etc. 

(f) During President’s rule in the state, state financial propriety is managed by the union.

India is a federal structure in nature. So the powers have been distributed between union and state governments. Article 245 to 255 of the Constitution of India clearly narrates the distribution of powers. Here the constitutional powers have been categorized into three lists. Firstly the national and international issues are comes in the centre list in which the central government can legislate and the state governments are not permitted to interfere on these issues.

The centre list consists 100 subjects like External affairs, Defence, Currency, Science and Technology. Railway, Central Excise Duty, Import and Export. The regional matters are comes under state list in which the state governments arc permitted to legislate on these matters. The central government cannot interfere on the state list matters in general. The state list consists 63 subjects like Police, Agriculture. Health. Road Transport. Animal Husbandry. Sericulture, etc.

Remaining all subjects are comes under the concurrent list in which both centre and state can pass the legislations. In case of disputes, the will of the central government prevails. The concurrent list consists 52 subjects like Marriage divorce. Press Media, Civil and Criminal code. Trusteeship, Education, etc.

The powers which are not mentioned in the Union list. State list and Concurrent list, is called Residuary powers.

They provide an opportunity for a wider set of people to be consulted in any decision. Institutions make it difficult to have a good decision taken very quickly. But they also make it equally difficult to rush through a bad decision. That is why democratic governments insist on institutions.  

1. Parliament is the final authority for making laws in any country. This task of law making or legislation is so crucial that these assemblies are called legislatures. Parliaments all over the world can make new laws, change existing laws, or abolish existing laws and make new ones in their place. 

2. Parliaments all over the world exercise some control over those who run the government. In some countries like India this control is direct and full. Those who run the government can take decisions only so long as they enjoy support of the Parliament. 

3. Parliaments control all the money that governments have. In most countries the public money can be spent only when the Parliament sanctions it. 

4. Parliament is the highest forum of discussion and debate on public issues and national policy in any country. Parliament can seek information about any matter. 

1. Bihar: Singhbhum.
2. Orissa: Mayurbhanjh.
3. Chhattisgarh: Durg and Bastar.
4. Karnataka: Bellary, Dharwar, Kudremukh.

1. Hematite

2. Magnetite

3. Limonite

4. Siderite

1. Taxila was an ancient Indian city, which is now in north – western Pakistan.

2. It is an important archaeological site and the UNESCO declared it as a world heritage site in 1980.

3. Its fame rested on the university where Chanakya is said to have composed his Arthashastra.

Textile Industry was the oldest industry in India.

1. Certain centers of metal industry were quite well known.

2. For example, Saurashtra was known for bell metal, Vanga for tin industry and Dacca was identified with muslin clothes.

1. The country was invaded by various foreign rulers and several traders from different part of the world.

2. Besides, religion, society and culture, education in medieval India also experienced a new perspective.

3. The aim of education during Muslim period (Medieval) was the illumination and extension of knowledge.

4. In the eleventh century, the Muslim rulers established elementary and secondary schools.

5. They founded primary schools (maktabs) in which students learnt reading, writing and basic Islamic prayers.

6. And secondary schools (madrasas) were established to teach advanced language skills. Several madrasas were set up by the Sultans and nobles.

7. The main objective of these madrasas was to train and educate the scholars who would become eligible for the civil service.

8. Iltutmish was the first ruler to establish a madrasas at Delhi during his rule. Gradually many madrasas came into existence.

9. In the later medieval era, the British came to India and introduced English education with the coming of the European missionaries, Western education made firm advances in the country.

10. Various universities and thousands of colleges were formed and popularity of education increased.

(C) 27-10-1940

Average Revenue and Marginal Revenue are equal in perfect competition market.

Answer is a & d

Answer is c & d

Answer is (d) We can draw circles, rectangles and other objects in Inkscape to images

(c) Image is opened in Inkscape

Answer is (d) To remove the colour of the object

(b) light and shade

Answer is (b) Scalable Vector Graphics

Answer is (b) Create and edit text objects

(b) Using blur utility in fill and stroke change the lines to steam raising

(c) Selecting all lines and give a suitable colour

(c) Creating images

(d) Draw three vertical lines above the c teacup using calligraphy brush tool

(d) Create cycles

(a) Text put on path

To draw a semicircle in Inkscape, the utility to change end value to 0.00

Answer is (c) svg

To draw a semicircle in Inkscape, the utility to change start value to 180.00

(c) Object → Fill and stroke

Answer is (d) Change the depth of the colour in objects

(a) Click no colour on stroke paint tab in the fill and stroke window

(d) Pressing the Alt key and arrow key

Answer is a & b

(c) Object → lower

(c) There is a facility to remove the page border, you are in need.