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The reasons behind the backwardness of agriculture in the colonial period: 

1. Raising of excessive land revenue from both the capable and incapable farmers. 

2. No proper facility of irrigation. 

3. India was backward from both economic and social point of view. 

4. The land settlement system applied by the colonial government was not satisfactory. 

5. The level of technology was inferior. 

6. The usage of manures and fertilizers was not sufficient. 

7. The landlords of the country were loyal to the Britishers and used to take undue advantage of farmers. 

8. The landlords did not pay enough attention towards the development of agriculture and farmers, they only believed in raising maximum amount of land revenue.

At the time of independence, the Indian economy was underdeveloped, stagnant, semi-feudal and agrarian.

According to some economists, most of the population between the year 1881- 1951 was dependant upon agricultural activities. In 1881, almost 61 per cent was dependant upon agriculture and related tasks only, while it increased to 72 per cent by 1951. Due to this reason, it can be said that during the British era, India economy was under developed. 85 per cent of the population was directly or indirectly dependant upon agriculture only that resulted in non- development of Industrial sector.

In the first stage.

The first census in India was done in 1881, and since then, it is performed every 10 years in India. In 1881, India’s population was 25.4 crore. Infant mortality rate was about 218 per thousand during the colonial period and life expectancy rate was 32 years only. The literacy rate during British rule was 16 per cent, in which female literacy rate was only 7 per cent. Therefore, it can be said that the demographic condition of India was not satisfactory during the British rule.

The establishment of Railways was done by the British Government in 1850. The main the objective of the British Government behind starting of Railways was not the favour of India, but to make it easier to transport the raw materials from different parts of the country to England and to .sell the goods manufactured there in the Indian markets.

Excessive dependence on agriculture means continuous decline in the per capital availability of land for the population engaged in agricultural work. Due to this reason, agriculture was mostly considered as merely a source of sustaining livelihood and not profitable. So, at the time of gaining independence, most of the population percentage was engaged in agricultural work, as a result of which, Indian economy was in a state of extreme backwardness, i. e. common people had to perform unflagging labour in order to earn two meals a day.

Indian agriculture was under British rule before Independence. 

Due to the following exploitative policies of the British, Indian agriculture became backward and underdeveloped :

i. Zamindari system under British rule : Under this land settlement system, Zamindars were recognized as owners of the lands. Zamindars were given the rights to collect the rent from the peasants. Zamindars molested the farmers badly. Due to this, farmers became their slave and their condition became miserable.

Due to these reasons, zamindar started molesting farmers. Upon resisting, they used to take away the lands of the farmers and made them landless. After that, two new systems also came in existence, i.e. Mahalwari system and Ryotwari system, due to which, the economic condition of the farmers suffered a severe setback.

ii. Inferior level of Technology : Along with the faulty land-ownership system during the colonial rule, the level of technology employed in agriculture was also inferior and backward.

iii. Revenue System : Also due to the conditions of the revenue system, the farmers were exploited to the maximum by the zamindars. So, on the basis of the above mentioned reasons, it can be said that till the time of attaining independence, the agricultural sector was completely backward and stagnant.

Before 1921, India was in the first stage of demographic transistion, and after 1921, India entered the second stage (in which death rate decreases and birth rate remains high). Life expectancy rate level was 32 years only. Therefore, it can be said that during the British period, the size of population and its growth rate was less in India.

In order to determine the level of economic development, it is important to know the actual level and trends in real wages. A lack of data related to this was found in the British period. Radhakamal Mukherjee collected all kinds of historical data available to him, for the United Provinces, (present Uttar Pradesh), and prepared the real wages index for the period between 1600 and 1938. It can be said on the basis of these indicators that in comparison to 1807, the wages of both skilled and non skilled workers were less in 1938. However, the condition between 1916 and 1928 was so bad that the wages of workers in these categories were less than half of that in 1807.

The public health and medical facilities were inaccessible for the common citizens during the British rule. And the places that had these facilities did not have proper doctors to look after them and thus there were raging infectious diseases resulting in higher Gross Mortality Rate and Child Mortality Rate.

Due to various exploitative policies of the Britishers, the Indian economy had severely weakened by the time of independence. 

The economic condition of various parts of the country was as follows:

• Condition of agriculture : During British era, 85 per cent of the population was directly or indirectly depend upon agriculture only. But agricultural development remained stagnant, and there was no technical reform in this. 
• Condition of Industrial sector : The British imposed “free trade policy” in India forcibly, while imposing a protectionist policy in England. There was a dual objective behind decentralization of India. One, they wanted India to become a supplier of raw materials for modem industries developing in England, and two, they wanted India to become an extensive importer for their finished products. 
• Condition of Infrastructure : The basic infrastructure is divided into 2 parts-Social infrastructure and Economic infrastructure. In both these spheres India couldn’t grow well.

Correct Answer is: (b) In 1850

In the history of demographic transition, the year 1921 is known as “a great segmentation year”. The first census in India was done in 1881, and since then, it is done at the gap of every 10 years in India. Before the year 1921, India was in the first stage of demographic transition, where both birth rate and death rate were high. While after 1921, it went into the second stage, where death rate decreased but the birth rate remained high. .

At the time of attaining independence, the condition of industrial sector of the Indian economy was extremely backward. The famous handicrafts were declining. India was unable to gain a powerful industrial base. Diplomatic objectives of the Britishers were behind all this to make India only an exporter of raw material and to provide a large market to the producers of England in order to absorb the goods produced in England. Apart from this, disinvestment was made only in consumer goods industries such as cotton textile and jute. TISCO (Tata Iron and Steel Company) was established in the form of a basic infrastructure industry in 1907.

After the Second World War, although attention was given on sugar, paper and cement industry, yet the capital goods industry was neglected. At that time, along with the low rate of development of industrial sector, the national income was also extremely low.

During the British reign, till 1870, there were only 2 joint stock banks and this number increased to 9 in the 20th century, but due to the banking crisis in 1913, many banks failed. In British era, the banking sector did not contribute substantially to economic development. Due to the lack of development of banking system, Indian industrialists could not receive financial benefits, but financial assistance was provided to those industries which were under the control of the Britishers.

Development of railways benefitted the Indian economy in two ways : 

1. It made easier for the people to travel long distances. 

2. Encouragement of commercialization of agriculture. Although exports increased due to this commercialisation, yet the Indians did not gain any benefit out of this and in stead the country suffered economic loss.

Agricultural Economy : Indian economy was an agricultural economy even before the British rule. Most of the population here was engaged directly or indirectly in agricultural works. Indian agricultural land used to produce gold in the form of food grains. Therefore, Indian economy was a prosperous economy with the point of view of agriculture.

Industrial Development : Before the British period, industries had already been established in India. 

The Indian industrial goods were famous globally.

1. Barter system was in existence in India. 

2. Lack of mobility existed in the factors of production. 

3. Animals were used as modes of transportation and power. 

4. Industrial knowledge, technical skills, and engineering skills were present in people.

Following were the reasons for the industrial development remaining stagnant during the British period :

1. Indian artisans were destroyed. 

2. Indian workers were exploited and were made servants. 

3. Import duty was applied on Indian products, while the export of Indian goods was reduced. 

4. The British imposed “Free Trade Policy” in India forcibly, while imposing a protectionist policy in England, due to which India suffered a huge loss. 

5. The shipping industry was also neglected by the Britishers. 

6. Consumer goods industries were established in the country, while there was lack of capital goods industries.

Correct Answer is: (a) In 1907

The British rulers had developed roads, railways, airports, water transport and posttelegraph etc. resources for their selfish self-interests. Their motive of development of roads was not to provide these services to the common people, but to make it easier to spread their services within the country and to transport the goods to the nearby markets. Commercialisation of agriculture was done by the development of railways.

Before independence, estimates of national income in India were not collected officially so that the Indians could not realise the stagnancy of the Indian economy, but even during the British period, several economists performed estimates of national income and per capita income. Dadabhai Naoraji was the first person to perform the estimates of national income. He presented the national income estimates of 1867-68 in the year 1876. Dr. V.K.R.V. Rao made the necessary amendments in these estimates in an effort to make them more useful for comparative analysis.

We fully agree to the statement that India’s handicraft Industry was destroyed during the British era. 

Following are the major reasons for that :

1. The economic policies made by the Britishers did not have the objective of economic development of India, instead, they were protecting and enhancing the economic interest of their native country England with the help of these policies. 

2. The Indian handicraft was based on old traditional techniques, which caused a huge expense on inputs. 

3. The goods coming from England were made by machines, therefore they were attractive, and the expenses incurred were also less.

Post and Telegraph services developed during the British era. The expensive telegraph service was developed whose main objective was to maintain law and order in the country. These postal services gave common people comfort, but they were not enough.

A country’s physical resources, irrigation, transportation, energy, communication, banking, technological know-how, etc. are included in the basic economic infrastructure.

The structure of basic infrastructure of India before the British Era can be clarified through the following points :

1. The Indian industries were already established before the British rule. Industrial efficiency, technical knowledge, and engineering skills were clearly visible even before the British ruled in India. India had become globally famous as a center for cotton and silk textiles, metal, based and gemstone related handicrafts. Indian products had become prestigious commodities in the global market. India obtained gold, silver and precious stones in exchange of exporting these products. India was considered the richest country in the world in the 17^th century.

2. Before British era, animals were used as a means of transport, but t he roads at that time were not in a good position like today. Roads in the rural regions were not reasonably developed and the life of the villagers became extremely difficult during the rainy season.

3. In British era, the banking sector did not contribute substantially to economic development. Due to the lack of development of banking system, Indian industrialists could not receive the required financial facilities.

4. Before British era, due to the independent economy of India, villages were economically independent and self dependent. There were three classes in the village- farmers, artisans and servants. Among these, the status of farmers was the highest. Farmers used to allot their portion of work to other people and gave them wheat in return. The servants were asked to collect lagaan (land tax) and give it to the government.

5. Indian agriculture was sufficiently developed and farmers were mostly skilled in agricultural activities before the British Era. India exported cotton and silk textiles, rice, jute, sugar, spices etc. and received gold in return.

Zamindari System : This system emerged during the British period. Earlier, there was the ownership of the farmers upon land. With the objective of increasing the income, Governor General Cornwallis of the East India Company granted the right of ownership of agricultural land to the landlords and handed them the responsibility of collection of land revenue. In the beginning, 10/11^th part of the land revenue collected by the landlords went to the government and the remaining 1/11^th part was retained by them.

Demerits of the Zamindari System : 

Following were its demerits :

1. There was a lack of modernization in agriculture. 

2. No encouragement was given to the farmers to invest, due to which they continued to perform agriculture in traditional ways. 

3. There was a huge number of mediators. 

4. Zamindars raised and revenue from the farmers according to their own wish. 

5. Other than land revenue, farmers were forced to do forced labour without being paid, give gifts and douceur. 

6. Farmers who had taken loans were treated as servants.

During the British period.

The rate of land revenue under the Zamindari system varied from almost 34 per cent to 75 per cent.

(a) During British Period

Free trade policy is a policy to eliminate discrimination against imports and exports. Buyers and sellers from different economies may voluntarily trade without a government applying tariffs, quotas, subsidies or prohibitions on goods and services.

During the British rule, the extremely developed handicraft industry of India declined and clothes and other goods made in England started to be sold in Indian markets. As a result of this, the Indian textile industry started getting destroyed. Along with this, condition of unemployment emerged in iron industry and textile industry. After the 19th century, though the textile and jute industry developed, yet the process of industrialisation could not start along with this.

The demographical condition of India during the British period depicts all those characteristics which can be seen in a stagnant and backward economy. The figures of both birth rate as well as death rate were extremely high. This condition of high birth rate and death rate depicted the poverty present in almost all the parts of the country. 

During the British period, child Mortality Rate was 218 per 1000 infants.

• Life Expectancy : During that period, average life expectency of an individual was 32 years. 
• Literacy Rate : The percentage of literate people was 16 only, which was an indicator of social and economic backwardness. The female literacy rate was only 7 per cent, which was an issue of serious concern.

Under the Zamindari Settlement, the ownership of the land was not that of the workers employed on it, rather it was the Zamindar, who used to collect land revenue from the workers deployed in farming.

Land Holding System during the British Period : The British government imposed systems such as the Zamindari system, jagirdari system, mahalwari system, etc. in the Indian agricultural sector due to which the intermediate class emerged. These intermediaries snatched most of the part of agricultural produce from the farmers in the form of land revenue. The ownership of land was granted to the intermediaries. They collected high rate of land revenue, due to which the farmers were left with food grains which were even not enough for their sustenance. Due to this, the farmers became financially and physically weak. 

Following were the land holding systems in India prevalent during the British period:

1. Zamindari System 

2. Mahalwari Settlement 

3. Ryotwari Settlement

1. Zamindari System or Permanent System : Zamindari system emerged during the British period. Earlier, there was ownership of farmers upon land. Governor General Cornwallis of the East India Company granted land ownership to the landlords, and handed them over the responsibility of collecting revenue in order to increase income.

2. Mahalwari Settlement : Mahalwari system was implemented by William Bentinck in Agra and Awadh regions and later it was implemented in Madhya Pradesh and Punjab. In this system, the land was divided into Mahals. Each Mahal comprised one or more villages and the head of the village used to collect revenue from all the land holders of the village.

3. Ryotwari System : In this system, the Ryot or farmers were regarded as land owners and there was no intermediary between the farmers and the government. In this, the settlement was done on temporary basis. The rate of revenue was different for respective holdings owned by the farmers.

In Ryotwari System, the ownership rights were handed over to the peasants and the role of the intermediaries (zamindars) was abolished. The settlement was also temporary in this. The rate of land revenue for the holding under the ownership of the Ryot (farmer) was also different.

Consequences of decline of Indian industries : Significant changes took place in the direction of trade in India. India used to export finished goods to foreign countries, but in the view of the Britishers, the only country which had the capacity to fulfill the demand of raw material due to the industrial revolution of England, was India. Along with this, large markets were present in India to absorb the goods manufactured in England. Due to this, import of finished goods and export of raw material both increased.

(b) With the Jagirdars

This practice was started by William Bentinck in Agra and Awadh, and after that, it was implemented in Madhya Pradesh and Punjab. At all places, the period of settlement and the rate of land revenue was different.

Under the Mahalwari System, the unit of land revenue was not the field of the farmer, rather it was the entire village or mahal.

The work of collecting land revenue fixed for a particular village through settlement and to deposit it with the government was that of the head of the village.

Zamindars also exploited the farmers through the terms and conditions of the revenue system. The dates for depositing the fixed amount of revenue in government treasury were fixed in advance. It the Zamindars did not deposit the land revenue according to the system, then they were deprived of their rights. Thus, the zamindars made more efforts to extract maximum revenue from the farmers.

The British policy towards Indian Industries was not good, rather it was obstructive to hinder the development of industries.

In Maharashtra and Gujarat.

Correct Answer is: (c) 17th

In context to revenue, the entire village was regarded as the unit under the Mahalwari System.

Only few industries were established during British period in the end of the 19th century, but their development was made at a very slow pace. Initially, in India, cotton textile and jute industry was developed. The cotton industries were established in western areas in Maharasthra and Gujarat by the Indian entrepreneurs. Whereas jute industry was established by the Britishers and was limited to Bengal province only.

Iron and Steel industry developed in the beginning of the 20th century. Tata Iron and Steel Company (TISCO) was established in 1907. After World War n, sugar, cement, and paper industries were established.

Sickle cell Anaemia:

Zn has highest third ionisation enthalpy.

Cu, because the electronic configuration of Cu is 3d¹⁰4s¹. So second electron needs to be removed from completely filled d-orbital.

Zn [ No unpaired electron for metallic bonding]