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The development of the German and Italian nation states in the nineteenth century Political fragmentation: Till the middle of the nineteenth century, the present-day nations of Germany and Italy were fragmented into separate regions and kingdoms ruled by different princely houses. Revolutionary uprisings: Nineteenth-century Europe was characterised by both popular uprisings of the masses and revolutions led by the educated, liberal middle classes. The middle classes belonging to the different German regions came together to form an all-German National Assembly in 1848. However, on facing opposition from the aristocracy and military, and on losing its mass support base, it was forced to disband.In the Italian region, during the 1830s, revolutionaries like Giuseppe Mazzini sought to establish a unitary Italian Republic. However, the revolutionary uprisings of 1831 and 1848 failed to unite Italy. Unification with the help of the army: After the failure of the revolutions, the process of German and Italian unification was continued by the aristocracy and the army. Germany was united by the Prussian chief minister Otto von Bismarck with the help of the Prussian army and bureaucracy. The German empire was proclaimed in 1871. The Italian state of Sardinia-Piedmont played a role similar to that played by Prussia. Count Camillo de Cavour (the Chief Minister) led the movement to unite the separate states of nineteenth-century Italy with the help of the army and an alliance with France. The regions annexed by Giuseppe Garibaldi and his Red Shirts joined with the northern regions to form a united Italy. The italian nation was proclaimed in 1861. The Papal States joined in 1870.

Administrative and political causes: To fulfil the imperialistic ambitions of Britain Lord Welleselly merged the Princely States of Jhansi, Nagpur, Satara and Awadh in British empire. He took away the lands of Indian zamindars. He annoyed Muslims by insulting Mughal king Bahadur Shah Zafar. Indians were not given high posts in government services. Also they were not satisfied with the judiciaiy system of the British.

1. Social causes: The Company allowed the Christian missionaries to work in its territories. Laws were passed which made conversion to Christianity easier. Any person who had converted to Christianity could inherit his ancestral property. These who converted to Christianity, got opportunity of government jobs and other facilities. People felt that their religion and social customs were in danger.

2. Millitary causes: In 1857 AD, Indian War for Independence was started due to millitary discontent. Indian soldiers were discriminated on the issues of salary, posts, promotion, allowances. Some of the new laws violated their religious sentiments. The Indians took it as a major attack on their religion. In 1856, the British passed the order that every new recruit, in the army, had to serve overseas, if needed. Now, the Indian soldiers turned against the British. Indians were given Rs. 9 per month as salary while Britishers got Rs. 60 or 70 per month. On a minor mistake they were punished. This encouraged them to lift weapons against them. Defeat in Crimea war of Britishers encouraged Indian soldiers. Indian soldiers allowances were finished. In Second Burma War, Indians were ordered to go across the oceans but they opposed it, because in those times in Hindu religion sea voyage was against religion. Therefore, before 1857 many millitary revolts were held.

3. Economic causes: Due to policy of economic exploitation of the British, Indians had unrest. The objective of Britishers was to collect more and more wealth from Indian subcontinent. They had destroyed the self-dependent rural economic system of India. Britishers were becoming more rich and Indians were becoming more poor. Britishers imposed more fine (Lagaan) on farmers and zamindars even during the famine. They tortured and exploited them. It increased the discontent among Indians.

4. Immediate causes: In 1856 Enfield Rifle was given by the British government to the Indian soldiers. They were asked to break open the cartridge with their mouths. The soldiers refused to do so, suspecting the cartridges to be made of pork or beef fat. The British officers compelled the soldiers to use the cartridges. It was at this juncture that Mangal Pandey refused to open the cartridge on 29th March 1857 and killed the British officer.

He was arrested and hanged. A month after his execution, some soldiers in Meerut refused to use the new cartridges. About eighty five sepoys were arrested and sentenced to ten years in jail. This sparked off the revolt. On 10th May 1857, other sepoys marched to the jail, freed the imprisoned soldiers. They killed British officers. They set fire to the buildings and property of the British and declared war against them. From Meerut, the revolt spread to different parts of India like Delhi, Kanpur, Bihar, Rajasthan and South India. The soldiers were determined to end the British rule.

(i) In 1921, Gandhiji had designed the Swaraj flag.
(ii) It was a tricolor (red, green and white) flag and had a spinning wheel in the centre representing the Gandhian ideal of self-help.
(iii) Carrying the flag, holding it aloft, during marches became a symbol of defiance.

(i) They lent their support to the Congress in protest against the colonial policies that restricted indigenous business enterprises.

(ii) They also gave financial assistance and refused to buy or sell foreign goods. They formed associations like the Indian Industrial and Commercial Congress in 1920 and FICCI in 1927.

(iii) They viewed Swaraj as freedom from the domination of market by foreign goods but withdrew their support when the second Round Table Congress failed.

(iv) They were also concerned about the rise of the socialist ideology in the Congress.

(v) Purshottamdas, Thakurdas and GD Birla attacked the colonial control over Indian economy.

When Mahatma Gandhi returned to India from Africa in January 1915 he started a Satyagraha Movement in India in various places. 

(i) In 1916 he travelled to Champaran in Bihar to inspire the peasants to struggle against the oppressive plantation system. 

(ii) In 1917, he organised a satyagraha to support the peasants of the Kheda district of Gujarat. 

(iii) In 1918, Mahatma Gandhi went to Ahmedabad to organise a Satyagraha Movement amongst cotton mill workers. 

(iv) In 1919, he decided to launch a nationwide satyagraha against the proposed Rowlatt Act (1919). 

(v) To unite Hindus and Muslims Gandhiji started Non-Cooperation Movement in support of Khilafat as well as for swaraj. 

(vi) In 1930, Gandhiji started his famous Salt March (Dandi March) accompanied by 78 followers, from his ashram in Sabarmati to the Gujarati coastal town of Dandi. On 6 April, he reached Dandi, and openly violated the law and manufactured salt by boiling sea water. 

(vii) During Gandhiji’s salt march, thousands of women came out of their homes to listen to him. They participated in protest marches, manufactured salt, picketed foreign cloth and liquor shops. 

(viii) He did a lot for the upliftment of the untouchables. He called the ‘untouchables’ Harijans, and organised Satyagraha to secure their entry into temples and access to public wells, tanks, roads and schools. He himself cleaned toilets to dignify the work of the bhangi (the sweepers). He convinced upper castes to change their heart and give up the sin of untouchability.

Gandhiji proposed that the movement should unfold in stages :
1st Stage-Surrender of titles that the government awarded.
2nd Stage-Boycott of civil services, army, police, courts and legislative. councils, schools, and foreign goods.
3rd Stage-Then, in case the government used repression, a full civil disobedience campaign would be launched.

Dalit participation was limited in the Civil Disobedience Movement. The causes for this are listed below :
(i) Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, who organized the Dalits into the Depressed Classes Association in 1930, clashed with Mahatma Gandhi at the Second Round Table Conference by demanding separate electorates for Dalits.

(ii) When the British government conceded Ambedkar's demand, Gandhiji began a fast unto death.
(iii) Gandhiji believed that separate electorates for Dalits would slow down the process of their integration into the society.
(iv) Dr. Ambedkar ultimately accepted Gandhiji's position and the result was the Poona Pact of September 1932.
(v) It gave the Depressed Classes (later to be known as
the Schedule Castes) reserved seats in Provincial and Central Legislative Councils, but they were to be voted in by the general electorate.

(i) Barring local leaders from Amritsar along with Mahatma Gandhi from entering Delhi.
(ii) Open firing upon a peaceful procession in Amritsar, which led to widespread attacks on banks, police stations, etc. Imposition of Martial Law.
(iii) Forcing the Satyagrahis to rub their noses on the ground, flogging people and bombing villages

The Rowlatt Act of 1919 was opposed in the following manner:

(i) Rallies were organized in various cities.

(ii) Workers went on strike in railway workshops.

(iii) Shops were closed down.

It was in opposition to the Rowlatt Act that the infamous Jallianwala Bagh Massacre took place. General Dyer ordered his troops to open fire on the innocent civilian who had gathered from the city of Amritsar and outside to attend a peaceful meeting.

The icons and symbols used by the nationalists because – 

• The nation became to identify with the image or a figure and gradually the image was created so that people can identify the nation. 

• Their motive was to unite them through the use of symbols and icons. 

• Generate in them a feeling of nationalism.

As a result, a tricolour flag was created which was in red, yellow and green colour during the Swadeshi movement in Bengal. The flag had eight lotuses signifying eight provinces of British India, and a crescent moon, representing Hindus and Muslims. It was in 1921, that ‘Gandhiji designed the Swaraj Flag. It was again a tricolour which was in red, green and white, and had a spinning wheel in the centre.’ This was representing the Gandhian ideal of self-help. 

The values which were represented through the icons and symbols used by the nationalist leaders were-

• It acted as the symbol of defiance when the flag held upwards. 

• The Bharat Mata figure drawn by the Abanindranath Tagore in 1905 was shown mother figure providing, learning, food and clothing. The Mala on her one hand was representing her ascetic quality. Before this, he also tried to create a painting which was Indian style. 

• In a popular print of ‘Jawaharlal Nehru, a popular print’ shown Nehru holding the image of Bharat Mata and the map of India in his hand which was held near his heart. 

• There were also other prints, in which depicted nationalist leaders sacrificed their heads to Bharat Mata. It signifies that value of sacrifice for the mother was considered as powerful. 

• One figure of Bharat Mata was shown holding a Trishul, standing beside a lion and an elephant which was the symbol of power and authority.

In making India independent revolutionaries like Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, Rajguru, Chandra Shekhar Azad, Ashfaqulla Balwant Khan, Ram Prasad Bismil, Rajendra Lahiri, Khudi Ram Bose, Praffull Chandra, Balwant Phadke, Veer Savarkar, Subhash Chandra Bose, Lala Lajpat Rai, Vipin Chandra Pal, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Gopal Krishna Gokhle, Arvind Ghosh, Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, etc. played an important role.

Mahatma Gandhi called the ‘untouchables’ Harijans, or ‘the children of God’ and organised Satyagraha to allow Harijans’ entry into temples. 

(i) He himself cleaned toilets to dignify the work of the bhangi (the sweepers). 

(ii) He fought for their rights to use the public wells, tanks, roads and schools. 

(iii) He convinced upper castes to change their hearts and give up ‘the sin of untouchability’.

Marco Polo, a Venetian traveller, Al-Beruni, Ibn Battuta Nicolo Conti, Abdur-Razzaq, Domingo Paes.

Gandhi ji decided to withdraw the Non-Cooperation Movement due to various incidents of violence perpetrated by the masses, especially the Chauri Chaura incident in 1922 where the people clashed with the police, setting a police-station on fire. Gandhi ji felt that the people were not yet ready for a mass struggle, and that satyagrahis needed to be properly trained for non-violent demonstrations.

Three reasons by which the rich peasant communities took active participation in the Civil Disobedience Movement are: 

(i) Being producers of commercial crops, they were very hard hit by the trade depression and falling prices. 

(ii) As their cash income disappeared, they found it impossible to pay the government’s revenue demand. 

(iii) The government refused to reduce the revenue demand. This led to widespread resentment among the rich peasants and they enthusiastically supported the movement.

The ‘Lucknow Pact’ is considered important in the history of India’s freedom struggle.

This Act had been passed through the imperial legislative council despite the united opposition of the Indian members. It gave the British government enormous powers to repress political activities and allowed detention of political prisoners.

The Chauri-Chaura incident disheartened Mahatma Gandhi. He felt that the movement was turning violent in many places and Satyagrahies needed to be properly trained before they would be ready for mass struggles.

In 1919, the Rowlatt Act was passed hurriedly through the Imperial Legislative Council, despite the united opposition of the Indian members.
This Act gave the British Government enormous powers to repress political activities. According to this law, political prisoners could be detained in prison without trial for two years.
Mahatma Gandhi wanted non-violent civil disobedience against such unjust law. Rallies were organised in various cities, workers went on strike in railway workshops, and shops closed down. British administration decided to suppress the nationalists. Local leaders were picked up from Amritsar, and Mahatma Gandhi was barred from entering Delhi.

The following steps were taken by British administration against the nationalists who opposed the Act. 

• The British administrators decided to clamp down upon the nationalists because they feared that lines of communication such as railways and telegraphs would be disrupted. They adopted the following methods.
• Local leaders were picked from Amritsar. 
• Mahatma Gandhi was barred from entering Delhi. 
• On 10 April police fired upon peaceful, procession which led to widespread attacks on banks, post offices and railways stations. 
• Martial law was imposed. General Dyer took charge in Amritsar.

Among the different social groups which participated in the Civil Disobedience Movement the rich peasants also had their ideals and perceptions of Swaraj which encouraged them to join the movement.

• Rich peasants like Patidars of Gujarat and Jats in Uttar Pradesh who were producers of commercial crops were hard hit by depression and falling prices. 
• As their cash income reduced, they were unable to pay government revenue. 
• The government refused to reduce revenue.So, the rich peasants became enthusiastic supporter of the Civil Disobedience Movement to free them from the situation.

(i) The foreign travellers in earlier times admired the qualities like courage, truthfulness and modesty of the people of the ‘Arya Vamsa’. 

(ii) In the late-nineteenth-century India, nationalists began recording folk tales sung by bards and they toured villages to gather folk songs and legends. These tales, they believed, gave a true picture of traditional culture that had been corrupted by outside forces. It was essential to preserve this folk tradition in order to discover one’s national identity. In Bengal, Rabindranath Tagore led the movement for folk revival. In Madras, Natesa Sastri published a four-volume collection of Tamil Folk tales, The Folklore of Southern India.

• Congress wanted to include the demands of the masses as a whole and not a particular group or class. 
• If the demand of the workers were included, then industrialists would get offended. The industrialists were supporting the Congress financially. The Congress did not want to alienate the industrialists and create anti-imperialist feelings.
•  A big portion of the Congress membership and funding came from industrialists and small businessmen.

Reasons of grievances of the peasants against the government were:

(i) Due to forest laws of the colonial government.

(ii) Depriving them of the traditional rights of entering the forest to graze their cattle or to collect fuelwood and fruits.
(iii) High land revenues.
(iv) Forced to perform begar.

Steps taken to organize Peasant Movement :

(i) Many Kisan Sabhas were organized.

(ii) Organized Guerrilla Militant Movement.

(iii) Attacked police stations and attempted to kill British police officials.

(iv) Gandhiji declared that no tax to be paid.

D. Cunningham

1. A. O. Hume

2. Lord Curzon

3. Bankim- Chandra Chattopadhyaya

4. Vyomeshchandra Bannerjee

5. Bal Gangadhar Tilak (Lokmanya Tilak)

To repress the Rowlatt Satyagrahis, British decided to clamp down on them.

 The Rowlatt Act gave enormous powers to the government to repress political activities and allowed detention of political prisoners without trial for two years. 

• Indians reacted against this unreasonable act, Gandhiji wanted a non-violent civil disobedience against the unjust law and decided to start a hartal on 6th April 1919.
• Rallies were organised in various cities. 
• People organised hartals all over the country in protest of the Rowlatt Act and the shops were shut down. 
• Workers went on strike in railway workshops.

Gandhiji called off the Non-Cooperation Movement due to Chauri Chaura incident

Ancient archaeologist Alexander Cunningham and his assistants as well as the Indian archaeological expert’s Rai Bahadur Dayaram Sahni, Madho Swarup Vats and Rakhal Das discovered many archaeological remains depicting India’s rich heritage.

In February 1922, at Chauri Chaura in Gorakhpur, a peaceful demonstration in a bazaar turned into a violent clash with the police. In this incident several British police officers were killed. Hearing of this incident, Mahatma Gandhi called off the Non-Cooperation Movement. He thought the movement was turning violent which he never approved in any circumstances.

Developments which led to the launching of Non-Cooperation Movement:
(i) Mahatma Gandhi successfully organized Satyagraha movements in various places.
(ii) In 1916, he traveled to Champaran in Bihar to inspire the peasants to struggle against the oppressive plantation system.
(iii) Then 1917, he organized a Satyagraha to support the peasants of the Kheda district of Gujarat.
(iv) 1918 he went to Ahmedabad to organize a Satyagraha movement amongst cotton mill workers.
(v) In 1919, he decided to launch a nationwide Satyagraha against the proposed Rowlatt Act.
(vi) Rallies were organized in various places.
(vii) At the Calcutta session of the Congress in September  1920, he convinced other leaders of the need to start a non-cooperation movement in support of Khilafat as well as for Swaraj.

B. In 1906 C.E.

Gandhiji had carried out successful satyagraha in South Africa against the racist regime. 

• According to him satyagraha was not a passive resistance but it called for intensive activity. 
• It suggested that if the struggle was against injustice, physical force is not necessary to fight the oppressor. Non-violence could also win the battle. 
• Only through the power of truth and non-violence, an appeal was made to the conscience of the oppressor. 
• Persuasion, not force, would make the oppressor realise the truth. This dharma of nonviolence and truth united people against the oppressor and made them realise the truth.

BR Ambedkar tried to improve the conditions of the Depressed Classes in the following ways: 

• In 1930, Dr. BR Ambedkar organised the Dalits (the untouchables) into an organisation called the Depressed Classes Association, now known as scheduled caste. 
• His ideas regarding depressed class deferred from that of Mahatma Gandhi. He wanted separate electorates for Dalits.
• Whilst at Round Table Conference in London he demanded separate electorates for Dalits and the British coloniser conceded his demand. This caused Mahatma Gandhi to fast unto the death because he believed that separate electorate for the Dalits would slow down the process of their integration into the main society. 
• He signed the Poona Pact with Gandhi ji and the Congress giving the opportunities to depress to secure reserved seat for Dalits in the provincial and Central Legislative Council to be voted in general election.

Dr B.R. Ambedkar organised the Dalits into the Depressed Classes Association in 1930. But he clashed with Mahatma Gandhi at the Second Round Table conference. He demanded separate electorate for Dalits. Gandhiji felt that granting of the separate electorate may harm the unity of our country and weaken the freedom struggle. Hence, they both signed the Poona Pact in 1932.

C. appointing Hindi judges in courts

C. A. O. Hume

It was with the efforts of Sir Allan Octavian Hume (A. O. Hume), a retired British officer, that the Indian National Congress was established in December 1885.

Following were the measures taken by the British administration to repress the movement started against the Rowlatt Act: 

• Alarmed by the popular upsurge, British decided to clamp down on nationalists. 
• Local leaders were arrested and Gandhiji was baned from entering Delhi.
• There were firing on peaceful procession. 
• Seeing the situation out of control, Martial law was imposed,

The tribal peasants of Gudem Hill in Andhra Pradesh fought for swaraj and revolted against the British. 

The following were the causes that led the tribals to the revolt in the Gudem Hills of Andhra Pradesh:

• The colonial government had closed large forest areas preventing the tribals from entering the forest to graze their cattle and felt that their traditional rights were being taken away. 
• The tribal who were strongly dependent on the forests for food, fruits and fuel were prevented to carry out these activities affecting their livelihood which enraged them. 
• The government was forcing the peasants of the Gudem Hill’to carry out begar (unpaid work) for the building of roads. 
• A militant movement had begun to resist the repressive measures of the colonisers.The tribals here became violent and attacked police station and attempted to kill the British. 

Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Madam Annie Besant established the ‘Home Rule’ League.

Bahadur Shah Zafar

The Major Burton assassinated was In Kota.

The Gudem rebellion spread in response to Gandhiji’s Non-Cooperation Movement. The four features of this rebellion are: 

(i) In the Gudem Hills of Andhra Pradesh, a militant guerrilla movement spread in the early 1920s under the leadership of Alluri Sitaram Raju. 

(ii) The hill people got enraged when the colonial government prevented them from entering the forests to graze their cattle, or to collect fuel wood and fruits. 

(iii) They considered Sitaram Raju as an incarnation of God inspired by Gandhiji’s Non-Cooperation Movement, Raju persuaded the Gudem rebels to wear Khadi and give up drinking. But at the same time he asserted that India could be liberated only by the use of force, not non-violence.

(iv) The Gudem rebels attacked police stations, attempted to kill British officials and carried on guerrilla warfare for achieving Swaraj.

(a) The response of the plantation workers to the Non-Cooperation Movement are :
(i) Under the Inland Emigration Act of 1859, plantation workers were not permitted to leave the tea gardens without permission.
(ii) When they heard of the Non-Cooperation Movement, thousands of workers defied the authorities, left the plantations and headed home.
(iii) They believed that Gandhi Rai was coming and everyone would be given land in their own village.
(iv) They, however, never reached their destination. Stranded on the way by a railway and steamer strike, they were caught by the police and brutally beaten up.
(b) For them, freedom meant the right to move freely in and out of the confined space in which they were enclosed.

Baba Ramchandra led the peasant movement in Awadh during the NonCooperation movement. Baba Ramchandra was a sanyasi. He launched this movement against the talukdars and landlords. The peasants of Awadh had to do a begar. This movement was started demanding reduction in revenue, the abolition of begar and social boycott of the oppressive landlords.