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Differences between Cyclic and Non-cyclic Photo phosphorylation

Cyclic Photo phosphorylation:

1. It is performed by photosystem I independently. 

2. An external source of electrons is not required. 

3. It is not connected with photolysis of water. Therefore, no oxygen is evolved. 

4. It synthesises only ATP. 

5. The system does not take part in photosynthesis except in certain bacteria. 

6. It occurs mostly in stromal or intergranal thylakoids. 

7. ATP synthesis is not affected by DCMU. 

8. It is helpful in photosynthesis only in some bacteria.

Non-cyclic Photo phosphorylation:

1. It is performed by collaboration of both photosystems II and I. 

2. The process requires an external electron donor. 

3. It is connected with photolysis of water and liberation of oxygen. 

4. Noncyclic photo phosphorylation is not only connected with ATP synthesis but also production of NADPH. 

5. The system is connected with C0₂ fixation. 

6. It occurs in the granal thylakoids. 

7. DCMU inhibits noncyclic photo phosphorylation. 

8. It takes part in photosynthesis in all plants including blue-green algae.

Ganong's potometer

Equation:

AlN + 3H₂O → Al(OH)₃ + NH₃

Carbon tetrachloride is insoluble in water and behave as a bad conductor of electricity while sodium chloride is soluble in water and behave as a good conductor of electricity in their aqueous state.

(i) Initially a light blue ppt is formed which on addition of excess of ammonium hydroxide dissolves and a deep inky blue solution is formed. 

(ii) Initially a white ppt is formed which disappears (dissolves) in excess of ammonium hydroxide. 

(iii) A reddish brown gas is evolved and a yellow residue is left in the test tube.

Fringe width, β = \(\frac{\lambda D}{d}\)

∴ If d (= separation of slit) decrease, β will increase.

(1) Collimator’s function is to alter the distance between the slit and the lens by rack and pinion arrangement. The slit is adjusted to be at the focus of the collimating lens so as to get a parallel beam of light.

(2) Telescope function is to adjust the distance between lens and the cross-wires by rack and pinion arrangement, while that between cross-wires and eye piece by hand. The objective of the telescope forms a real image of the slit. This image is then magnified by the eyepiece.

Spectrometer is used for measurement of dispersive powers, wavelength of spectral lines, the refractive indices of solids and liquids.

Two main effects: 

(i) It can change the state of rest or of motion of the body. 

(ii) It can change the size or shape of the body.

(i) The purpose of covering cathode by thorium and carbon to decrease the work function. 

(ii) When electron beam on striking the screen gives a bright spot on it due to the fluorescence of the material coated on it. 

(iii) On increasing the filament current, the rate of emission of electrons from the cathode will increase.

(i) ₁₁Na²⁴  →₁₂Mg²⁴ + _-1e⁰

(ii) The number 24 is mass number and 11 is atomic number. 

(iii) They are isobars.

It is the fastest method of transmitting written message. The messages sent through e-mail can be sorted or amended and sent elsewhere.

All incoming letters are stamped with the date of receipt and are numbered. It can be done by hand or machine Date stamping helps us to know the date when the mail was received and the name and designation of the person to whom letter is intended.

PS. means postscript when the writer forgets to include something important in the body of the letter he can add the message as P.S. However, writing a postscript is not a good practice and should preferably be avoided in a good business letter.

Special purposes tables are known as special tables. They provide infomation for particular discussion. These tables are called derivative tables because these are often derived from general tables.

Induction and training have vital importance in today’s business world. A good induction and training program can greatly improve well being and productivity throughout a company, whilst bad one can not only cause confusion, but also to large decreases in productivity through staff not knowing their function, or their place in the company.

The discussion and other events which take place in a meeting are known as proceedings. On the other hand, the judgement given by the chairman of the meeting on any controversial point is known as ruling.

(a) NB means: Nota Bene. 

(b) PABX means: Private Automatic Branch Exchange

A histogram is a bar chart representing a frequency distribution; heights of the bars represent observed frequencies. Histogram is prepared using X and Y axis of a chart. Therefore, it is called two dimensional graph.

In the case there is any difficulty in holding any annual general meeting (except the first annual meeting), the registrar may, for any special reasons shown, grant an extension of time for holding the meeting by a period not exceeding 3 months provided the application for the purpose is made before the due date of the annual general meeting. 

However generally delay in the completion of the audit of the annual accounts of the company is not treated as “special reason” for granting extension of time for holding its annual general meeting Generally. In such circumstances, an AGM is convened and held at the proper time all matters other than the accounts are discussed. All other resolutions are passed and the meeting is adjourned to a later date for discussing the final accounts of the company. However, the adjourned meeting must be held before the last day of holding the AGM.

Business reply card is helps a business concern to procure mail orders, suggestions on its products, survery reports, etc. Business reply card is a prepaid card in which the sender does not need to affix postage stamps. Postage is borne by the business concern.

PIN code number helps in sorting and distributing the mail by post office staff. It speeds up the delivery of the letters and articles by the post offices.

Public Relation is a philosophy and function of management expressed in policies and practices which serve the public to secure its understanding and goodwill. 

The following are the various elements of public relations: 

1. Target group Orientation : The target group to be reached must be clearly identified for any campaign. The definition of the target group should be in demographic and psycho graphic terms. 

2. Adequate Resources : To be effective, and to make the desired impact, advertising, publicity and public relations programmes must be sustained and backed with adequate financial resources. 

3. Media Selection : The media to be used must be those which reach the right target group at the right time, and at the minimum cost. 

4. Objective Orientation : All advertising, publicity and public relations programmes must have pre-defined short-term and long-term objectives as a prerequisite. 

5. Creativity and Innovations : The more creative and innovative you can be, the better your message will be noticed and the better will be the chance of your being able to achieve your goals.

(i) Campus Recruitment : Jobs in business have become highly technical and require well-educated persons. The employer gets help from the placement cell of the educational institute in recruitment and the selection. Companies send their managers to such institutions where there are suitable candidates recommended by institutes. For example, students passing out from IIMs and IITs are recruited every year at the campus itself. 

(ii) Placement agencies : Placement agencies consists of private agencies and professional bodies. These agencies keep bio data of a large number of candidates and provide a nation wide service of recommending suitable names to their clients. They also keep a complete record of skills and qualification of the candidates and sometimes even advertise the jobs on behalf of their clients in order to recruit the most potential candidate. This source of recruitment is employed for recruitment of senior managers and technicians.

The energy crisis is the concern that the world’s demands on the limited natural resources that are used to power industrial society are diminishing as the demand rises. These natural resources are in limited supply. While they do occur naturally, it can take hundreds of thousands of years to replenish the stores. Governments and concerned individuals are working to make the use of renewable resources a priority, and to lessen the irresponsible use of natural supplies through increased conservation.

The energy crisis is a broad and complex topic. Most people don’t feel connected to its reality unless the price of gas at the pump goes up or there are lines at the gas station. The energy crisis is something that is ongoing and getting worse, despite many efforts. The reason for this is that there is not a broad understanding of the complex causes and solutions for the energy crisis that will allow for an effort to happen that will resolve it.

Causes of energy crisis are :

• overs consumption
• overpopulation
• delay in commissioning of power plant
• poor infrastructure
• waste of energy
• Poor distribution system

The best possible solution is to reduce the world’s dependence on non-renewable resources and to improve overall conservation efforts. Much of the industrial age was created using fossil fuels, but there is also known technology that uses other types of renewable energies – such as steam, solar and wind.

• Solar energy : Solar power systems derive clean, pure energy from the sun. Installing solar panels on your home helps combat greenhouse gas emissions and reduces our collective dependence on fossil fuel. Traditional electricity is sourced from fossil fuels such as coal and natural gas.
• Wind energy : The wind is a clean, free, and readily available renewable energy source. Each day, around the world, wind turbines are capturing the wind’s power and converting it to electricity. This source of power generation plays an increasingly important role in the way we power our world.

An energy crisis is any great bottleneck in the supply of energy sources to an economy. It is also the gap between demand and supply. It usually refers to the shortage of oil, or the shortage of electricity or other natural resources. Renewable energy is energy generated from natural resources which can be generated continuously in nature and are inexhaustible. The various renewable sources of energy are : 

(i) Solar Energy : Solar energy is the energy received by the earth from the sun. The solar energy can be converted into other forms of energy mainly by two methods : 

1. Thermal Method : In this method, solar radiation in the form of heat is converted into mechanical, electrical and chemical energy by using solar thermal devices. 

2. Photo voltaic Method : The sun’s energy is directly converted into electricity using a photo voltaic cell. 

3. Biomass Energy : Biomass includes firewood, crop and timber wastes, aquatic plants, animal wastes and organic matter from household, municipal and certain types of industrial wastes. India produces about 300 million tones of crop residue every year in which it generate about 40,000 MW of electricity.

(a) Online shopping is very convenient and hasslefree and customers can order goods or products 24 hours a day. They can access information on the internet about competing brands. The sellers or producers sells products across all over the world and sells across various categories including fashion, consumer durables, home decor, furniture etc. It is the place where seller can quickly add products and change prices and descriptions also. The companies who do online trading in India are Flipkart, Amazon, Myntra etc. 

(b) The various reasons for the increase in online shopping in India are : 

1. Consumers can easily compare prices and review online before making a purchase. 

2. Customers increasingly prefer the flexibility of online shopping as it offers the convenience to shop when they want and from wherever they happen to be. 

3. Online shopping offers a much easier way for customers to search for exactly what they want at the click of button. 

4. An online store allows customers the option to shop from further a field as they are not restricted by geographical location. 

5. Customers can buy things at cheaper prices. 

(c) Direct channels of distribution adopted by Motorola in selling its new launches. 

There are various distribution channels adopted by marketers : 

1. Telemarketing : The products are heavily advertised on T.V. The consumers who watch advertisements and feel interested can place their orders. 

2. One Level Channel : This channel involves the use of one middleman who in turn sells them to the ultimate customers. This channel is often used for the distribution of consumer durables and products of high value. 

3. Two Level Channel : This channel is suitable where producer has limited finance and narrow product line or where the wholesalers are specialised. Under this, wholesaler and retailer act as a link between the manufacturer and the customers. 

4. Three Level Channel : This is the longest channel of distribution. The producers hands over his entire output to the selling agent who distributes it among a few wholesalers. This level is usually used when a manufacturer deals in limited products and wants to cover a wide market.

(a) The Parle adopt familiarity brand policy. The company advertise its product under the tagline “From the House of Parle”. It is a formal plan used by a business to create a particular image of itself in the mind of current and potential customers. Parle is sitting on a strong pedigree of many individual brands. They can build its prestige and goodwill by offering quality brands at reasonable prices. 

(b) Brand equity means the marketing effect of a brand. High brand equity provides a company with many competitive advantages. Brands have equity because they create high awareness, many, loyal customers and high reputation for perceived quality. It also refers to the result from the marketing of a particular product or service because of its brand name and that would not occur if product don’t have brand name. 

With reference to brand equity, while the flagship Parle-G is worth ₹ 5,000 Crore plus and by far the biggest brand in the portfolio combining nearly 30% of overall shares, other like Parle 20-20 and Parle Magix cream are among f 1000 Crore and Crackjack, Monaco and Hide & Seek around ₹ 500 Crore. 

(c) Brand promotion is that element of marketing mix that aims at informing, reminding, persuading and influencing the customers so that they purchase the brand. It is applied and persuasive communication used for informing and reminding the customers. Its aim is to persuade the customers to buy more and more products. So that it will increase the company’s sale. Brand promotion efforts seek, to stablize sales by minimising the impact of such fluctuations. It facilitates mass production which leads to economies of scale and lower costs. 

The two methods of brand promotion are given below : 

(i) Publicity : Publicity refers to the non-personal stimulation of demand for a brand by placing – important news about it in published medium. Public relations activities are typically designed by the firm to build image for the firm. For example, Reliance World Cup Cricket Tournament, ITC Sangeet Sammelan, etc. Good or Bad remarks or reviews appearing in newspapers or magazines about a film, book, a policy etc. are also called publicity. 

(a) Sales Promotion : It refers to the use of short term incentives to persuade the people to purchase the goods or services immediately. The basic purpose of sales promotion is to stimulate on the spot buying through short-term and non-recurring incentives which helps to increase the sales and profits. It also help to inform the prospective buyers about the availability, features and uses of product. There are some techniques of sales promotion i.e.,

(a) Parle is one of the most widely distributed biscuit brands in India and has fantastic mass appeal. Many people love to have Parle with their evening tea or coffee. It is found in all nooks and corners of the country and is exported to several other countries as well. The turnover of Parle is the driving force behind all other products of Parle.

Heritage : Parle has a strong legacy of more than 70 years and its associations with people for such long time is helping the company in being competitively ahead of its competitors.

manufacturing locations, increasing efficiency of the factories and reducing transport cost which helped the company in emerging as the largest selling biscuits in the world by volume. 

Economies of scale : Because Parle has become such a big brand, it enjoys fantastic economies of scale. A single Parle distributor can distribute many different products of Parle. The fixed costs remain the same whereas variable cost increases which is always good for a company.

(b) Brand equity is a marketing term that describes a brand’s value. That value is determined by consumer perception of and experiences with the brand. If people think highly of a brand, it has positive brand equity. When a brand consistently under-delivers and disappoints to the point where people recommend that others avoid it, it has negative brand equity.

Positive brand equity has value. Companies can charge more for a product with a great deal of brand equity. That equity can be transferred to line extensions – products related to the brand that include the brand name – so a business can make more money from the brand. It can help boost a company’s stock price.

(c) Companies are always trying to promote the products and services they offer. In what's known as "brand promotion," the brand promotes itself. Shifting its focus to the brand as a whole, the company tries to drive awareness of what it is and what is does, with the overall idea that a more familiar brand is more successful than a brand no one has heard of.

Brand means a mark (symbol or sign) or design or some combination of these used to identify the products of one seller and to differentiate them from competitive products. A registered brand is known as trade mark. Brand promotion is that element of marketing mix which is designed to inform, remind, persuade and influence the customers so that they purchase the brands of the advertiser company. Brand promotion is applied and persuasive communication used for informing and reminding the customers of the company's brands. It is primarily the responsibility of the manufacturer though wholesalers and retailers may also undertake it.

The main objectives of brand promotion are : 

• To Promote Information To Differentiate the Product 
• To Increase Demand l To Build Brand Equity 
• To Stabilize Sales l To Offset Competitors' Marketing Efforts 
• To Build Image The two method of Brand Promotion are : 
• Organizing Contests : To attract the consumers, various contests are organized for consumers without having them to purchase the product and giving away gifts or prizes. l Promotion on Social Media : When the brand is promoted on social media, it is not perceived as “aggressively trying to sell”, rather as being able to communicate at a more personal level.

17° 46′ N to 24°05′ N latitude. 

80° 15′ E to 84° 20′ E longitude.

6° 45′ North – 37° 6′ North Latitude. 

68° 7′ East to 97° 25′ East Longitude.

Bengaluru is the electronic capital of India because: 

• Availability of skilled and trained worker.

• Readily available quality research and development institutions. 

• Development of various electronic industries like the Indian Telephone Industries. The Electronics Corporation of India, Bharat Electronics, etc.

A landmass which is separated from the rest of the continent by water bodies or mountains is called a subcontinent.

India is called a subcontinent because of its : 

(a) Vast size, 

(b) diversity, 

(c) the ice-covered lofty Himalayas in the North, 

(d) the vast Indo-Ganga plain to its south, 

(e) the Thar desert, 

(f) the uneven Deccan plateau, 

(g) the high temperature and heavy rainfall . 

from the tropical monsoon climate.

A – Shivaliks or outer Himalayas. 

B – Bhabar. 

C – Bhangar. 

D – Khadar.

(i) Sericulture is a labour intensive industry that deals with the production of silk and the nearing of silkworms for this purpose. It provides employment to a large number of people. Silk is produced by small units usually by individual families. 

(ii) Silk in Chhattisgarh comes from Bastar and Bilaspur districts.

(i) It is located at the confluence of rivers Hugli and Haldia about 105 km downstream from Kolkata. 

(ii) Haldia post has been developed to release congestion at the Kolkata port and to enable docking of larger vessels which cannot enter the Kolkata port.

Objectives should be framed for a single activity in mind. They should be result oriented. Objectives should not be v ague and they should be quantitative and measurable. Objectives must be achievable. They should not be unrealistic.

Objectives of Marketing: 

Creation of Demand : The marketing management’s first objective is to create demand through various means. A conscious attempt is made to find out the preferences and tastes of the consumers. Goods and services are produced to satisfy the needs of the customers. Demand is also created by informing the customers the utility of various goods and services.

Customer Satisfaction : The marketing manager must study the demands of customers before offering them any goods or services. Selling the goods or services is not that important as the satisfaction of the customers’ needs. Modern marketing is customer- oriented. It begins and ends with the customer.

Market Share: Every business aims at increasing its market share i.e.. the ratio of its sales to the total sales in the economy. For instance, both Pepsi and Coke compete with each other to increase their market share. For this, they have adopted innovative advertising, innovative packaging, sales promotion activities, etc.

Importance of planning : 

Increases efficiency: Planning makes optimum utilization of all available resources. It helps to reduce wastage of valuable resources and avoids their duplication. It aims to give the highest returns at the lowest possible cost. Therefore, it increases the overall efficiency.

Reduces business-related risks: There are many risks involved in a business. Planning helps to forecast these business-related risks. It also helps to take the necessary precautions to avoid these risks and prepare for future uncertainties in advance. Therefore, it reduces business risks.

Facilitates proper coordination : The plans of all departments of an organization are well coordinated with each other. Similarly, the short-term, medium-term and longterm plans of an organization are also coordinated with each other. Such proper coordination is possible only because of efficient planning.

Financial planning helps you determine your short and long-term financial goals and create a balanced plan to meet those goals.

Importance of financial planning :

• Financial planning provides policies and procedures for the sound administration of the finance function. 

• Financial planning results in preparation of plans for the future. Thus, new projects could be undertaken smoothly.

• Financial planning ensures required funds from various sources for the smooth conduct of business.

Importance of Planning: 

Focuses attention on objectives and results: Every organisation exists to achieve certain objectives Planning concentrates attention on the dominant goals of the organisation.

Reduces uncertainty and change : Uncertainly and risks are inevitable and planning cannot eliminate them. But planning enables an organisation to cope with uncertainty and change.

Planning helps to identify potential threats and opportunities. It also keeps management alert to the changing environment of business. In this way, planning provides additional strength to the organisation for survival and growth in the face of turbulence.

Provides sense of direction : Planning saves an organisation from drifting and avoids aimless activities. Planning makes work more meaningful and activities more orderly.

Helps in coordination : Planning is the best stage for the integration of diverse forces at work. Sound planning inter-relates all the activities and resources of an organisation.

The activities and efforts of various departments and divisions can be harmonized with the help loan overall plan, planning makes for balance and consistency in efforts Planning leads to a consistent and coordinated structure of operations.

Provides economy in operation : Planning facilitates optimum utilization of available resources. It makes at possible for things to occur which would not otherwise happen. It improves the competitive strength of an organization by helping it to discover and exploit opportunities a rational solution to problems, planning results in the use of most efficient methods of work.

Functional Structure : In a functional structure, positions are grouped based on the type of work they do and the skills required to complete that work. Organizations employing this kind of structure divide themselves into functional areas like marketing, engineering and accounting.

Each functional area is usually led by an administrator with expertise in that field. The strengths of the functional structure include fostering, supervising and efficiently utilizing specialized resources.

Divisional Structure: In a divisional structure, an organization divides itself not into functional areas but into divisions. These divisions, which can be created around product lines, markets or geographic region, usually are given more independence and sometimes even act like separate companies. This structure is usually employed by businesses whose growth into new products, markets or regions makes the functional structure too complex and cumbersome. By creating these pseudosovereign divisions, decisions can be made more quickly and employees can specialize in the unique aspects of the division in which they work, providing for a more efficient use of resources.

(i) Water pollution 

(ii) Detergents, Chemicals 

(iii) Cholera, Jaundice, Typhoid, Dysentery, Diarrhoea 

(iv) We should treat the poisonous substances and discharge materials and toxic substances coming out of the homes and factories before discharging them into the rivers and ponds. We should not mix petroleum substances in the water. Dead bodies should not be thrown in the river. We should set more and more sewage treatment plants that play a crucial role in the reclaimed polluted water. Effective steps should be taken to outlaw dumping of wastes into a river or other water sources. 

(v) Agents causing pollution are called pollutants. Example, Gaseous pollutants are so2 , co2 and co. Chemical pollutants like fertilizers, pesticide and insecticide.

(i) Abscisic acid 

(ii) Indole acetic acid 

(iii) Adenosine triphosphate 

(iv) Deoxyribonucleic acid 

(v) Thyroid stimulating hormone

1. Road transport is more flexible than rail as buses, trucks and cars may be stopped anywhere and at any time for passengers and goods whereas trains stop at stations only. 

2. Roads can negotiate high gradients and sharp turns to reach at almost all areas whereas trains cannot do the same. Roads can be constructed at hilly areas also. 

3. Road transport provides door to door service, can connect farms, fields, factories and market very easily.

Ways in which cinema can be considered as a powerful means of mass communication are :

1. Cinema entertains millions of people every day throughout the country. 

2. It provides useful information and variety of entertainment. It is the only source of entertainment and information in rural and remote areas. 

3. It helps the spread of a particular message or idea. 

4. It contributes in social relationships and promotes cultural unity

Advantages of Railways in India : 

(i) It forms a major employment sector as lakhs of people are dependent on railways for their livelihood. 

(ii) Railways serve as the cheapest mode of transport for bulky products over long distances. 

(iii) Railways serve as the principle mode of transport for both freight and passengers.

(i) Chennai. 

(ii) 1.Severe tropical cyclones in the month of October – November which frequently originate in the Bay of Bengal, pose serious threats to fishermen.

2. The port is ill-suited for large ships because of the lesser depth of water near the coast.

(i) Jawaharlal Nehru Port has a vast hinterland covering the whole of Maharashtra and large parts of M.P, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Delhi and some parts of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.

(ii) Exports: Cotton textiles, leather, tobacco, chemical goods. 

(iii) Imports: Crude oil, superior quality raw cotton, latest machines, instruments and drugs.