Explore topic-wise InterviewSolutions in .

Meninges protective coverings located round the human brain and spinal cord.

(i) Passive transport

(ii) Antiseptic 

(iii) Prophase 

(iv) Bleeding 

(v) Heterozygous

(i) Plasmolysed 

(ii) Hypertonic solution 

(iii) 1- Nucleus, 

2- Chloroplast, 

3- Vacuole,

4- Hypertonic solution. 

(iv) Plant cell 

Reason: (1) Presence of cell wall, 

(2) Presence of large vacuole. 

(v) It has to be placed in a hypotonic solution.

Demography the Statistical study of human population.

(i) Hydathodes: Bring about the loss of water but in the form of water droplets. 

(ii) Centrosome: Initiates the cell division in animal cells. 

(iii) Xylem: Conducts water and inineral salts up to the highest part of the leaves. 

(iv) Corpus luteiun : Secretes the hormones such as oestrogen, progesterone and relaxin. 

(v) Eustachian Tube: It equalizes atmospheric pressure and pressure in the ear.

A plant cell may burst when Turgor pressure exceeds wall pressure. 

(i) True. 

(ii) False, “Respiration occurs in all the cells of the plant. 

(iii) False, “The pancreas gland is both exocrine and endocrine in function”. 

(iv) True. 

(v) True.

Pons varolii

(i) Demography 

(ii) Meninges 

(iii) Rhodopsin 

(iv) Chloroplast 

(v) Choroid

(i) The aim of the experiment is to show that C02 is necessary for photosynthesis. 

(ii) The leaf inside the flask do not turn blue black when tested with iodine. 

(iii) NaOH (Sodium hydroxide) can be used as an alternative. 

(iv) ) Leaf 1 does not turned blue black while leaf 2 turned blue black at the end of starch test,

(i) (C) Chromosome 

(ii) (C) Systole of the left ventricle 

(iii) (B) Homozygous condition 

(iv) (B) Pancreas 

(v) (D) Association neurons

(i) Neutrophils: Phagocytosis 

(ii) Ureter: Carries urine from Kidney to urinary bladder. 

(iii) Neurotransmitters: Conduction of nerve impulse. 

(iv) Iris of eye: Regulates amount of light entering the eye. 

(v) Placenta: Connects foetus with mother.

(i) Upper epidermis, Palisade tissue, Spongy cells, Substomatal space, Stoma. 

(ii) Receptor, Sensory neuron, spinal cord, Motor neuron, effector. 

(iii) Soil water, Root hair, Cortex, Endodermis, Xylem. 

(iv) Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase, Cytokinesis. 

(v) Intestinal artery, Intestine, Hepatic Portal Vein, Liver, Hepatic Veins.

(i) Neutrophils : Engulf microbes (phagocytosis) 

(ii) Ureter : Carries urine from kidneys to the urinary bladder. 

(iii) Neurotransmitters : Carry nerve impulse. 

(iv) Iris of the eye : Regulate the amount of light entering into the eye.

(v) Placenta : Transfer nutrients, oxygen, etc. from materal blood to foetus.

(i) Upper epidermis, palisade tissue, spongy cells, substomatal space, stoma. 

(ii) Receptor, sensory neuron, spinal cord, motor neuron, effector. 

(iii) Soil water, root hair, cortex, endodermis, xylem. 

(iv) Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, cytokinesis. 

(v) Intestinal artery, intestine, hepatic portal vein, liver, hepatic vein.

(i) To prove that CO₂ is necessary for photosynthesis. 

(ii) No CO₂ in the flask. 

(iii) CaO (limestone), potassium pyrogallate. 

(iv) Leaf 1- No change in colour with starch test. 

Leaf 2- Will turn blue black at the end of starch test.

(i) The term Vitamin was coined by Funk. 

Chemical name of Vitamin D: Cholecalciferol (D₃), Ergocalciferol (D₂) 

(ii) Amino acids are amphoteric, which means they have acidic and basic tendencies. The carboxyl group is able to lose a proton and the amine group is able to accept a proton. 

Or 

In neutral amino acid solution, the (– COOH) loses a proton and the – NH₂ of the same molecule picks up the one. The resulting ion is dipolar charged but overall electrically neutral. Due to this reason amino acids are amphoteric in nature i.e., they donate or accept proton. 

(iii) Bio-remediation : Nowadays, microbial preparations are used for degradation of these pollutants. The waste organic materials treated with selected potential strains of microorganisms are rendered into less or non-toxic forms. This process of remedying pollution is called bio-remediation. 

(iv) Primer: A primer is a short strand of RNA that serves as a starting point for DNA synthesis. They are required for DNA replication because DNA polymerases can only add new nucleotide’s to an existing strand of DNA. 

(v) Cryoprotectants: These are basically antifreeze that is added to the solutions in which the cells are being stored to protect them from membrane damage and ice crystal damage. Examples are DMSO, Polyethylene glycol.

Positive stressors refer to any situation or circumstance that a person finds motivating and inspiring. 

For example : Falling in love, meeting a star. The situations are enjoyable, yet accompanied by biochemical, physiological, cognitive and behavioral changes. 

Two situational causes of stress are : 

Stressful life events : These range from cataclysmic events such as death of one’s spouse or being fired from a job. This also includes events such as childhood sexual abuse, rape, man-made or natural disasters such as world trade centre attack. 

Daily hassles : Daily hassles have a cummulative impact on health and illness such hassles include being stuck in a traffic jam, waiting in line, doing household chores, living in poverty, being in a bad relationship or maintaining a high stress job. 

Two disposition causes of stress are : Negativity, Pessimistic explanatory style : Some people are predisposed by their personalities to experience stressful events as especially stressful. This line of research has focused on the psychological state called negative affectivity, i.e., a pervasive negative mood marked by anxiety, depression and hostility. While some people characteristically explain the negative events of their lives in terms of internal, stable and global qualities of themselves. This is known as pessimistic explanatory style. 

Psychological sense of control : This refers to the feelings that one can exert control over stressful events. Perceived control is the belief that one can determine one’s own behavior, influence one’s environment and bring about desired outcomes. Perceived control is more closely related to self-efficacy, i.e., one has the ability to enact the necessary actions to obtain a specific outcome in a specific situation. The more the psychological sense of control, less stress is reported to be experienced and better coping occurs.

In Piaget’s theory, a stage of cognitive development occurring roughly between the ages of seven and eleven, is the stage of concrete operations. According to Piaget, a child’s mastery of conservation marks the beginning of this stage. Logical thought emerges in this stage. 

The key developments at this stage are as follows : 

Conservation : Children at this stage under-stand that physical entities (weight, length, amounts) remain fixed so long as nothing is added or taken away from it, though it might appear different. Understanding of this nature’s constant is known as conservation. 

The various kinds of conservation are : 

Conservation of substance: Two identical clay balls are presented. The subject admits that they have equal amounts of clay. If one ball is deformed into the shape of a “sausage”, the subject will still say that both contains equal amounts of clay at this stage. 

Conservation of length : Two sticks are aligned in front of the subject and he admits their equality. Now if one of the sticks is moved to the right, and the subject is asked whether they are of the same length, the subject will admit that they are still of the same length. 

Conservation of members : Two rows of clay balls are placed in one-to-one correspondence subject admits that both rows have equal number of balls. Now, one of the rows is elongated or contracted and subject is asked whether both the rows still have the same number of balls. They admit equality. 

Conservation of liquids : Two beakers are filled to the same level with water. The subject sees that they are equal. Now, liquid of one container is poured into a tall tube. The subject is asked whether each contains the same amount. At this stage, They agree that each contains the same amount. 

Conservation of area : In two identical cardboard’s same number of identical wooden blocks are placed in identical portions. Then the subject is asked whether each cardboard has the same amount of space remaining. The experimenter then scatters the blocks on one of the cardboard’s. The subject is asked the same question. In both the cases, the subject admits that same amount of space is left. 

Reversibility : In this stage, children can solve the questions mentally. They do not need to measure or weigh objects. 

For example — 

In the famous Muller-Lyer illusion : In the figure, in step 

1, a child agrees that stick A and stick B are equal. In step 

2, stick B appears longer than stick A. But children in the concrete stage are capable of mentally reversing the arrows shafts to its original configuration, would admit it to be the same as stick A. 

Categorization : This includes abilities such as ‘seriation’, ‘transitive inference’ and ‘class inclusion’. 

• Seriation : It refers to the ability to arrange items along a dimension such as weight (lightest to heaviest) or colour (lightest to darkest). 

• Transitive inference : It refers to the ability to recognize a relationship between two objects by knowing the relationship between each of them and a third object. 

For example : Amenda is shown three sticks — a yellow, red and green. She has been told that the yellow stick is longer than red one and the red one is longer than the green one, then without physically comparing the yellow with the green one, she can tell that the yellow stick is longer than the green one. 

Class inclusion : Class inclusion is the ability to see the relationship between the whole and its parts. For example—A bunch of ten flowers (seven roses and three carnations) is shown to the children at this stage and asked whether there are more roses or more flowers. They realize that roses are a sub-class of flowers and therefore there cannot be more roses than flowers. 

Spatial thinking : Children at this stage can understand spatial relationship, i.e., they have a clear idea how far it is from one place to another and how long it takes to get there. They have the ability to use maps and models. 

Inductive and deductive reasoning : Children at this stage use inductive reasoning, rather than deductive reasoning. It refers to that type of logical reasoning that moves from particular observation about members of a class to a general conclusion about the class. 

For example : My dog barks, so does Jerry’s dog and Melissa’s dog. So, it looks as if all dog’s barks. 

The children at this stage, however, cannot very clearly think of hypothetical propositions. Also, they cannot understand the broad meaning of abstract concepts such as freedom, integrity. Intellectual growth, is still incomplete.

Physical growth is rapid during infancy. If provided with good nutrition, infants almost tripple in weight and increase in body length by about one-third, during the first year. 

Reflexes : At birth, new borns possess several simple reflexes (inherited responses to stimulation in certain areas of the body). The reflexes which new boms show at birth and very shortly thereafter are as follows : 

• Blinking : Baby closes eyes in response to light.

• Rooting : When cheek is touched or stroked, baby turns toward touch, moves lips and tongue to suck. 

• Sucking : When nipple or other object placed in mouth, baby sucks. 

• Tonic neck : When baby is placed on back with head turned to one side, baby stretches out arm and leg on side baby is facing. 

• Moro : Baby throws out arms and fans fingers, extends neck and cries in response to loud noise or sudden drop of head. 

• Babinski : When baby’s foot is stroked from head to toe, toes fan out. 

• Grasping : When palms of hands are stroked, baby closes fingers around the object in a strong grasp. 

• Stepping : Baby makes stepping motions if held upright so one foot just touches a surface. Locomotor development: 

Birth — Fetal posture 

One month — Lifts head 

Six weeks — When held upright, holds head erect and steady 

Two months — Lifts chest; Lifts self by arms; Rolls from side to back 

Three months — Grasps cube; reach and miss

Four months — Rolls from back to side 

Four months — sits with support 

Seven months — Sits alone; crawls 

Eight months — Stands with help; Pull to stand

Nine months — Plays pat-a-cake 

Eleven months — Stands alone; crawls up stairs

Twelve months — Walks alone

Sixteen months — Walks up stairs with help

Twenty three months — Jumps in place

Thirteen months — Builds tower of two cubes

Fourteen months — Scribbles vigorously

(i) Prospero and Ferdinand are on a lonely island where the latter is captivated by the former. 

The two commands given by Prospero that Ferdinand has to obey are : 

(a) To carry and pile up the logs of wood. 

(b) To be obedient always to his commands by following them. 

(ii) Prospero treats Ferdinand cruelly, as he is under trial. Prospero thus speaks to him that all his muscles are limp and lifeless. 

(iii) All the personal loss and threats of Prospero does not affect Ferdinand and he is ready to face it all. 

(iv) Miranda is the “maid” referred to. She is shocked to find that her own father can be so cruel to someone. 

(v) Ferdinand will enjoy enough space in a prison where he gets a single glance of Miranda each day. Though he will be in prison, liberty shall prevail in all comers of the earth.

In adolescence different types of eating disorders are frequently observed. The most common eating disorders observed among adolescents are – anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. 

Anorexia Nervosa : The term anorexia nervosa literally means lack of appetite induced by nervousness. However, the root cause anorexia nervosa is an intense fear of gaining weight or becoming fat, combined with a refusal to maintain even minimally low body weight. 

Criteria for anorexia nervosa (DSM-IV-TR): 

(1) Refusal to maintain a body weight that is normal for a person’s age and height (that is a reduction of body weight to about 85% of what would normally be expected). 

(2) Intense fear of gaining weight or becoming fat even though underweight. 

(3) Distorted perception of body shape and size. This is known as body image distortion. It has been observed that this disorder is more common among female adolescents than male. The reason is girls have a greater societal pressure, influence of mass media to look attractive. They try to conform to an ideal body type, which is lean and thin like a fashion model. 

(ii) Bulimia Nervosa : The word ‘Bulimia’ comes from the greek word ‘bous’ ( meaning ox) and ‘lumos’ (meaning hunger). It is meant to denote hunger of such proportion that the person can eat an ox. 

Criteria for Bulimia nervosa (DSM-IV-TR): 

(1) Recurrent episodes of binge-eating, i.e., uncontrolled and rapid intake of food. 

(2) Recurrent and inappropriate efforts to compensate for the efforts of binge-eating to prevent weight gain. 

(3) Typical strategies include- self-induced vomiting or misuse of laxatives, purging (cleansing the body from within). 

(4) Self evaluation is excessively influenced by weight and body shape. This disorder is associated with a lack of self control to resist eating excessive amounts of food. This excessive food intake generally takes place during feelings of negative emotions like sadness, anxiety, anger. 

Causes of eating disorder : 

(1) Peer and media influences : There is an ideal body shape for women set by models in various magazines. Young adolescents are avis customers of such magazines. 

(2) Body dissatisfaction : One consequence of socio-cultural pressure to be thin is that some young girls develop highly intrusive and pervasive perception regarding how ‘fat’ they are. 

(3) Dieting : When people wish to be thinner, they go on a diet. But there is a difference between going on a supervised diet that is monitored by a therapist and going on a self- started diet that might be characterized by periods of fasting and over-eating.

(4) Genetics : Certain people may have genes that increase their risk of developing eating disorders. Biological factors, such as changes in brain chemicals, may play a role in eating disorders. 

(5) Psychological health : People with eating disorders may have psychological and emotional problems that contribute to the disorder. They may have low self-esteem, perfectionism and troubled relationships.

Eating disorders can be treated through family therapy for adolescents or cognitive behaviour therapy which involves changing the behaviours and maladaptive styles of thinking.

The first stage of Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development is the sensorymotor stage. During this stage (birth – two years), infants learn about themselves and their world through their developing sensory and motor activities. 

Six sub-stages of Piaget’s sensory motor stage are: 

Use of reflexes (birth to one month) :

Infants exercise their inborn reflexes and gain some control over them. They do not grasp an object they are looking at. For example- Dory begins sucking when her mother’s breast is in her mouth. 

Primary circular reaction (one month to four months) : Infants repeat pleasurable behaviour that first occurs by chance, such as thumb sucking. Activities focus on infant’s body rather than the effect of the behaviour on the environment. For example- when given a bottle, Jessie who is usually breast fed is able to adjust her sucking to the rubber nipple. 

Secondary circular reaction (four months to eight months) : Infants become more interested in the environment. They repeat actions that bring interesting results such as shaking a rattle. Actions are intentional but not goal directed. For exampleBenjamin pushes pieces of dry cereal over the edge of his chair tray one at a time and watches each piece as it falls on the floor. 

Coordination of secondary schemes (eight months to twelve months) : Behaviour is more deliberate and purposeful(intentional) as infants coordinate previously learned skills and use previously learned behaviours to attain their goals, such as crawling across the room to get a desired toy. For example- Nancy pushes the button of her musical rhyme book and ‘twinkle twinkle little star’ plays. She pushes this button over and over again, choosing it instead of the buttons for other sounds. 

Tertiary circular reactions (twelve to eighteen months) : Toddlers show curiosity and experimentation. They purposefully vary their actions to see results, such as shaking different rattles to hear their sounds. They actively explore the world. They try out new activities and use trial and error in solving problems. For example- When Tony’s elder sister holds his favorite board book up to his crib bars he reaches for it. His first effort to bring the book into his crib fails because the book is too wide. Soon Tony turns the book sideways and hugs it, delighted with his success. 

Mental combinations (eighteen months to twenty four months) : Since toddlers can mentally represent events they are no longer confined to trial and error. Symbolic thought allows toddlers to begin to think about events and anticipate their consequences. For example- Jenny plays with her shape box searching carefully for the right hole for each shape, without trying and succeeding. 

Other developments in the sensory-motor stage: 

Object permanence : It develops gradually between three to six sub-stage. It is the understanding of an infant that an object or person continues to exist even when out of sight. This development in many cultures can be seen in the game of peek-a-boo. 

Imitation : Piaget maintained that invisible imitation (imitation using a part of the body that a baby cannot see such as mouth) develops at about nine months after visible imitation- the use of hands or feet which babies can see.

Freeze Preservation: in this approach, cells and tissues are stored at - 196°C in liquid nitrogen. Theoretically, the cell and tissues can be stored in live state indefinitely, viability generally declines with the duration of cryopreservation, and thawed cells/tissues show variable degrees of damage, which they may be able to repair under appropriate media and culture conditions. It is desirable to preserve organised tissues like shoot-tips, and somatic and zygotic embryos to minimize the risk of genetic instability associated with unorganized tissues like cell suspensions and protoplasts.

Equipment used in Cell Culture Technology : 

• Washing and storage facilities. 

• Media preparation room. 

• Transfer area (Inoculation chamber / Laminar airflow, a closed plastic box). 

• Culture room (Controlled system of light and temperature).

 Note: Data collection: Cultures are monitored at regular intervals for growth and development of cultured tissue.

Mode of DNA Replication 

DNA replication is a multi step complex process which requires over a dozen enzymes. It begins at a particular spot called origin of replication. Bacterial and viral DNA has a single origin of replication but in eukaryotic DNA there are a number of origin of replication because of the large size as well as association with proteins. Replication takes place as follows : 

Activation of deoxyribonucleotides : Deoxyribonucleotides or deoxyribonucleoside monophosphates occur freely inside the nucleoplasm. They are first phosphorylated and changed to active forms which have three phosphate residues instead of one. Enzymes phosphorylase is required alongwith energy. The phosphorylated nucleotides are cfeATP. (deoxyadenosine triphosphate), deGTP (deoxyguanosine triphosphate), deCTP (deoxycytidine triphosphate) and deTTP (deoxythymidine triphosphate). 

Exposure of DNA strands : Enzy mes topoisomerases are specialized to cause nicks (or breaks) and reseal the same in one strand of DNA. Helicases (unwindases) unwind the DNA helix and separate the two strands. In prokaryotes topoisomerases and helicases are replaced by DNA gyrases. The separated strands are stabilized by helix destabilizing (HD) or DNA binding proteins (DNP). They become open for replication. However, whole of DNA does not open in one stretch but the point of separation proceeds slowly from one end to the other. It gives the appearance of Y-shaped structure called replication fork. 

RNA primer. It is essential for initiation of new DNA chains. RNA primer is a small strand of RNA which is synthesized at the 5′ end of new DNA strand with the help of enzyme called primase. It is specific. RNA primer is formed on the free end of one strand and fork end of the other strand. After start of nucleotide chain, RNA primer is removed and the gap is filled. 

Base pairing: The two separated DNA strands in the replication fork function as templates. Deoxyribonucleoside triphosphates come to lie opposite the nitrogen bases of exposed DNA templates – deTPP opposite A, deCYP opposite G deATP opposite T and deGTP opposite C. With the help of enzyme pyrophosphatase the two extra phosphates present on the deoxyribonucleotides separate. Energy is released in the process. The energy is used in establishing hydrogen bonds between the free nucleotides and nitrogen bases of templates. 

Chain formation : It requires DNA polymerase III (Komberg, 1956). In the presence of Mg²⁺, ATP (GTP), TPP and DNA polymerase III, the adjacent nucleotides present
attached to nitrogen bases of each template DNA strand establish phosphodiester bonds and get linked to form replicated DNA strand. As replication proceeds new areas of parent DNA duplex unwind and separate so that replication proceeds rapidly from the place of origin towards the other end. RNA primer is removed that the gap filled with complementary nucleotides by means of DNA polymerase I. Because of sequential opening of DNA double chain and its replication to form two chains. DNA replication is also called Zipper duplication. However, DNA-polymerase can polymerise nucleotides only in 5′ direction because it adds them at the 3′ end. Since the two strands of DNA run in antiparallel directions, the two templates prov ide different ends for replication. Replication over the two templates thus proceeds in opposite directions. One strand is formed continuously because its 3′ end is open for elongation. It is called leading strand. 

Replication is not continuous on the other template because only a short segment of DNA strand can be built in 5′ → 3′ direction due to exposure of a small stretch of template at one time. Short segments of replicated DNA are called Okazaki fragments. An RNA primer is also required every time a new Okazaki fragment is to be built. After replacing RNA primer the deoxv ribonucleotides and their polymerization. Okazaki fragments are joined together by means of enzyme. DNA ligase. DNA strand built-up of Okazaki fragments is called lagging strand. 

Proof-reading and DNA repair: A wrong base is sometimes introduced during replication. The frequency is one in ten thousand. DNA polymerase is able to sense the same. It goes back, removes the wrong base, allows addition of proper base and then proceeds forward. However, even DNA polymerase III is unable to distinguish uracil from thymine so that it is often incorporated in place of thymine. Such a mismatching is corrected by means of a number of enzymes. DNA replication is semi-conservative. One half of the parent structure passes up to each replica while the second half is built a new.

Enzymes taking part in Replication 

Four different enzymes have been reported which are given below : 

Exonuclease : This enzyme breaks down the hydrogen bonds coupling nitrogenous bases in DNA molecules so that both the chains get apart during replication.

Endonuclease: This enzyme breaks down the chain or chains of DNA molecule. Whenever it appears, it results in dispersive type of replication. 

Polymerase or replicase enzyme: It catalyses the formation of one polynucleotide chain that is a copy of another (complementary chain). This new chain is synthesized from the raw material already present in nucleoplasm. 

Ligase: This enzyme is used in the formation of bonds between the nitrogenous bases such as A = T and C = G. Whenever the appearance of the enzyme is delayed, conservative type of replication results.

In vitro Pollination : Cultivation of plant tissue or other organs on artificial media in a test tube or conical flask is called in vitro technique. The process of seed formation following stigmatic pollination of cultured pistil has been referred to as in vitro pollination. 

Need of Invitro Pollination:

• For the production of homozygous plant 

• For the conservation of extinct plant species 

• Hybrid production 

• Reducing the breeding cycle 

• Overcome the dormant period 

• Production of haploid plant 

• Conservation of germplasm

(i) Pollination and fertilization under in vitro conditions offer an opportunity for producing hybrid embry os among plants that cannot be crossed by conventional methods of plant breeding. In nature, Intergeneric or Interspecific hybridization occurs very rarely. This is due-to barriers hindering the growth of the pollen tube on the stigma or style. In such cases, the style or part of it can be excised and pollen grains either placed on the cut surface of ovary or transferred through a hole in the wall of ovary. This technique, called intraovarian pollination, has been successfully applied in such species as Papaver somniferum, Eschscholtiza California, Argemone mexicana.

Ovular Pollination : In this in vitro pollination method, pollen tubes directly penetrate isolated ovules. Interspecific crossing barriers do not occur during penetration of the pollen tubes into the micropyle. Completion of pollen tube penetration is much earlier than the division of the generative cell in sperm cells which may be the primary cause for the failure in fertilization. 

Placental Pollination : In this in vitro pollination method, the ovaries are cut into sectors on the day or after the day of stigma receptivity. Each sector contains a placenta with a row of ovules without or with ovary wall. Pollens are abundantly applied on the placenta. In this case also the rate of fertilisation is very slow. 

Applications of in vitro Pollination : In plant breeding, the technique of in vitro pollination has lot of potential in at least three different areas,

 • overcoming self-incompatibility, 

• overcoming cross-incompatibility, 

• haploid production through parthenogenesis. 

(ii) The technique for protoplast fusion are pritty will defined and highly effective for almost all the systems. Protoplast of desired species/strains are mixed in almost equal proportion; generally they are mixed while still suspended in the enzyme mixture. The protoplast mixture is then subjected to high pH (10.5) and high Ca²⁺ concentration 50 m molL^-1 at 37°C for about 30 min. (high pH Ca²⁺ treatment). This technique is quite suitable for some species while for some other it may be toxic. 

Two types of protoplast fusions are : 

Spontaneous protoplast fusion: During isolation of protoplasts for culture, when enzymatic degradation of cell walls is affected, some of the protoplasts, lying in close proximity, may undergo fusion to produce homokarvons or homokaryocytes. each with 2-40 nuclei. The occurrence of multinucleate fusion bodies is more frequent, when protoplasts are prepared from actively dividing cells. 

This spontaneous fusion, however, is strictly intraspecific. How ever, spontaneous fusion of protoplasts can also be induced by bringing protoplasts into intimate contact through micromanipulators or micropipettes.

There seems to be a correlation between the size of the leaf and the percentage of protoplasts undergoing spontaneous fusion; protoplasts from young leaves are more likely to undergo this fusion. 

Induced protoplast fusion: Somatic hybridization is generally used for fusion of protoplasts either from two different species (inter specific fusion) or from two diverse sources belonging to the same species. To achieve this objective, spontaneous fusion may be of no value, and induced fusion requiring a suitable agent (fusogen) is necessary. In animals, inactivated Sendai virus is needed to induce fusion.In plants, however, the inducing agent first brings the protoplasts together and then causes them to adhere to one another for bringing about fusion. During the last two decades, a variety of treatments have been successfully utilized for fusion of plant protoplasts. These treatments particularly include the following : NaN0₂, high pH with high Ca⁺⁺ ion concentration and polyethylene glycol (PEG). 

Applications: Auxin independent growth of hybrids of Nicotiana glauca and A. langsdorffii. Two parental lines cannot produce auxin and thus do not grow on auxin free medium, the hybrid cells produce auxin and are they able to grow and form callus.

Lenticel Permanently open structures seen on the bark of an old woody stem.

Photosynthesis the biological process which is the starting point of the food chain.

Lysozyme the an Antiseptic substance present in tears.

(i) Smog 

(ii) Immunity 

(iii) Implantation 

(iv) Menopause 

(v) Antidiuretic hormone/vasopressin. 

(vi) Conjuctiva. 

(vii) Presbyopia 

(viii) Population density 

(ix) LUBB 

(x) Phagocytosis

Population density

Conjunctiva a thin membrane covering the entire front part of the eye.

(i) (1) Seminiferous tubules. (2) Testicular lobes (3) Epidydymes (4) Sperm duct/Vas deferens 

(ii) Functions of Part 1 (Seminiferous tubules): The cells of seminiferous tubules keep on dividing and produce sperms by the process called spermatogenesis. 

Function of Part 3 (Epidydymes): 

(i) It helps in transportation of sperms from seminiferous tubules into vas deferens. 

(ii) It also helps the sperm to attain maturity. 

(iii) Testis are located in scrotal sac because it provides 2-3 °C less temperture than the body temperature, which is required for maturation of sperms. 

(iv) Inguinal canals facilitates the movement of testis from abdominal cavity into scrotal sac or vice-versa. 

(v) Semen is an alkaline combination of sperms and seminal fluid.

(i) Immunoglobulins 

(ii) Pollutant 

(iii) Menarche 

(iv) Umbillical cord

(v) Cerebrospinal fluid 

(vi) Lenticles 

(vii) Photosynthesis 

(viii) Reflex action 

(ix) Lysozyme 

(x) Isotonic

(i) Plasmolysed 

(ii) Hypertonic solution 

(iii) (1) Nucleus (2) Chloroplast (3) Vacuole (4) Hypertonic solution 

(iv) Plant cell. Because 

(1) Clear distinct cell wall is seen 

(2) Chloroplast clearly seen in. the cytoplasm. 

(3) Centrosome not seen. 

(v) Place it on a hypotonic medium or plain water for some time.

(i) Selectively permeable membrane 

(ii) Recessive character 

(iii) Optic nerve 

(iv) Diapedesis 

(v) Meninges 

(vi) Presbypopia 

(vii) Tropic Hormones 

(viii) Luteal phase 

(ix) Demography 

(x) Vaccination

1. Innate/Inborn immunity 

2. Recessive 

3. Seminal vesicles 

4. Ganong’s potometer 

5. Nomn identical/Fraternal 

6. Homologous chromostone 

7. Antiseptic 

8. Biomedical Wastes 

9. Lysozymes 

10.Red blood cells / Red blood corpuscles

Scrotum the thin walled sac of skin that covers the testes.

Pericardium the protective covering of the heart.

Tropic hormones

Tropic hormones the group of hormones which influence other endocrine grands to produce hormones.

Diapedesis the WBCs squeeze through the walls of the capillaries into the tissue.

Maharashtra is the leading state of the sugar industry in Peninsular India. 

The two centers are Ahmednagar and Kolhapur The sugar industry has shifted from North India to peninsular India mainly because : 

1. The geographical conditions are more. suitable in the south; the soil is well-drained and free from waterlogging. Southern India is free from frost and has high temperatures ideal for sucrose development.

2, The crushing season is also much longer in the south than in the north. 

For example— crushing season is nearly four months in the north from November to February whereas crushing season in south is nearly 7-8 months from October and continues till May and June,

(i) The Fertilizer Corporation of India was the first fertilizer plant set up in India after Independence. 

(ii) About 70% of the plants producing nitrogenous fertilizer use naphtha of the oil refineries as their basic raw material. This is why fertilizer plants are located near the oil refineries.

(i) Travelling to less disturbed or polluted natural areas with a view to study, admire and enjoy the beautiful aspects of a place along with the flora and fauna and the cultural beauty (past and present) located in these areas is called tourism. 

(ii) Domestic tourism contributes to national integration and creates employment opportunities.