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A reflex arc in man is best described as movement of stimuli from receptor cell, sensory neuron, relaying neuron, effector muscles. 

(i) A – Ovum B – Sperm 

(ii) Ovum is produced from the germinal layers in the ovary Sperm is produced from seminiferous tubules in the testis 

(iii) In the fallopian tube 

(iv) (1) Hormone by ovary: Oesterogen and progesteron (2) Hormone by testes: Testosterone. 

(v) Seminal Vesicle. Secretes seminal fluid. It contains fructose which gives energy to the sperm.

NADP is expanded as Nicotinamide, adenine dinucleotide phosphate

(i) Membranous labyrinth

(ii) Malleus, incus, stapes. Collectively called ear ossicles.

(iii) (1) Utriculus and iacculus (2) Cochlea (3) Semi-circular canals 

(iv) Auditory nerve.

(i) Membranous labyrinth 

(ii) Hammer anvil and stirrup or Malleus incus and stapes Collectively called Ear ossicles. 

(iii) CD Static balance: Utriculus and sacculus 

(2) Hearing: Cochlea 

(3) Dynamic balance: Semicircular canals 

(iv) Auditory nerve

President Lyndon Johnson.

(a) Cast iron: It is used in drain pipes, gutter covers, weights and railings.

(b) Wrought iron: It is used in chains, horse shoes and electromagnets.

(c) Mild steel: It is to manufacture nuts, bolts etc.

(d) Hard steel: It is used to make tools.

Tuticorin is a recently developed port of Tamil Nadu and handles the traffic of coal, salt, food grains, edible oils, sugar and petroleum products. Its main purpose is to carry on trade with Sri Lanka.

(i) The deciduous forests of India are economically important because : Though it is a mixed forest but single species of trees grow in patches favouring the exploitation of forest resources. These forests are not too dense and therefore are easily accessible. Moreover, these forests provide valuable wood which is commercially very important such as sal, teak, shisham, sandalwood and khair etc. 

(ii) The forest cover in recent years has decreased due to:

1. Thoughtless and rapid exploitation of forest resources as per demand of increasing population. 

2. For acquiring land for agriculture, industries and construction purposes, the forests have been cut down recklessly.

Indian Ocean is the only ocean in the world which has been named after a country (India), this is the biggest proof of the prominence enjoyed by India in early days when oceans were given their names. liven today India’s position in the Indian Ocean is paramount as :

(a) India stands at the head of the Indian Ocean at the very centre of the Eastern Hemisphere commanding trade routes running in all directions. 

(b) India commands an important strategic position on the globe with respect to trade as well as social cultural interaction. Economically and culturally India had major contacts with outside world in the last two millennia via Indian Ocean, no other country has as a long a coast line on this ocean as India has.

(i) River X represents the regime of a peninsular river, because peninsular rivers are seasonal rivers and they have more water in the months of rainy seasons, which lasts from June to November. 

(ii) Peninsular rivers flow from west to east originating from the Western Ghats and falling into Bay of Bengal, but Narmada and Tapi are two exceptions. These rivers flow from east to west direction falling into Gulf of Khambhat.

India is richly endowed with a variety of minerals and diverse geological formations. 

The following two points illustrate this :

(i) Development of Mining: India has huge population and mining can be an important activity to absorb large labour force. India needs to develop efficient techniques to avoid waste and to work the mines economically. 

(ii) Political Influence: Existence of mineral resources was one of the greatest factors responsible for emergence of imperialism and colonization.

Adenine, Guanine. Cytosine, Thymine.

Imbibition the phenomenon by which living or dead plant cells absorb water by surface attraction.

(i) (1) Alpha cells of islet of Langerhans

(2) Beta cells of islet of Langerhans. 

(ii) (1) It increases blood sugar level. 

(2) It decreases blood sugar level.

(iii) Pancreas produces pancreatic juice which is carried by pancreatic duct into the duodenum. It also produces hormones which are poured into blood. Because of this dual activity, it is called an exo-endocrine gland.

(iv) If insulin is given orally, it will be digested by the protein-digesting enzymes in the stomach. Hence it has to be injected.

(v) Islets of Langerhans.

(vi) Below the stomach.

Competent teachers should be employed for the purpose of imparting quality education to the pupils, and corporal punishment should Religious codes can be without any moral ground but moral codes are based on beliefs in divinity. For example, Sati Pratha was practiced as a religious code, which was devoid of a moral ground.

Moral codes are the rules governing the distinction between right and wrong. The religious codes refer to the rules which are defined by a specific religion. Provision should be made to enrol the non-admitted children to the age-appropriate class. The specification regarding the pupil- teacher ratios, building and infrastructure, working days, teacher working days and working hours should be clearly spelled out.

Adenine is an example of a nitrogenous base in DNA.

Hydrilla is an example of an aquatic plant used in the lab to demonstrate O₂ liberation during photosynthesis.

Pesticides is a example of a water pollutant.

1. Thylakoids

2. Water 

3. Hydrogen 

4. Photolysis

5. Hydrogen 

6. NADPH

7. ATP

8. Photophosphorylation

9. Glucose

10. Polymerisation.

Carbon monoxide combines with haemoglobin of RBCs and forms a stable compound known as carboxyhaemoglobin. This decreases the oxygen carrying capacity of blood, sometimes resulting death of person.

Y.X +X' + 1 = 1

(Y+X) . (Y') = 1

(a) Money: Anything which is widely accepted in payments for goods, or in discharge of other kinds of business obligations is called money. 

Primary Functions of Money: 

1. Medium of Exchange: Money serves as a medium of exchange. Money is normally accepted as a medium through which all the sales and purchases takes place. As the money is accepted as a common medium of exchange, it has eliminated the difficulties of barter system. 

2. Measure of Value: Money acts as a common measure of value. Under the barter system, the value of a commodity is expressed in terms of other commodity. When we express the value of a commodity in terms of money, it is known as price. These money provides a language of economic communication.

(b) Five differences between a direct tax and an indirect tax:

(a) Division of labour is not an unmixed blessing because inspite of many advantages, there are certain disadvantages of specialization of labour like social evils of factory system, class-conflicts among workers etc. 

(b) The expenditure incurred by the state on defence regarded as unproductive because these expenditures do not add to the productive efficiency of the economy directly as they are in nature of consumption. 

(c) As a lender of last resort, central bank gives financial accommodation to commercial banks by rediscounting their eligible bills at the time of emergencies. 

It means central bank saves commercial banks from financial crises by providing two types of loans: 

1. Rediscounting eligible securities and exchange bills of commercial banks. 

2. By providing loans against their securities. 

(d) X and Y are substitute goods. Example: Coke and Pepsi. A rise in the price of coke will cause an increase in the demand for Pepsi and viceversa is also true.

(a) Technolgical developments result in an increase in the supply. It brings down the costs of production and raises the profits of the producers. This naturally provides incentives to them to increase the supply of their products. 

(b) Creeping inflation occurs when there is a sustained rise in price at a very slow rate of 2 to 3 percent per year. It is considered good of an economy. It is generally known as safe and essential for economic progress and growth. 

(c) Differences between demand deposits and fixed deposits: 

1. Interest rate on demand deposits is very low, whereas fixed deposits carry a higher interestrate. 

2. Demand deposits can be withdrawn at any time, whereas fixed deposits can be withdrawn only after the expiry of a specific period. 

(d) Regressive tax system: The rate of the tax increases upto a certain limit but after that a uniform rate is charged. It is a mixture of proportional and progressive tax system. 

(e) Simple Division of Labour: It is the system in which each individual takes up one specific job depending upon his ability and aptitude such as carpenter, dentists, etc. In this, the individual is responsible for whole job and remain less skilled. Therefore, more training period is required.

(a) “Demand for a commodity is the quantity which a consumer is willing to buy at a particular price at a particular time.” Two factors which determine demand are as follows: 

1. Price of the commodity: An increase in the price level reduces the purchasing power of consumers and the demand will be less. A fall in the price level increases the purchasing power of the consumers and the demand will be more. 

2. Population: An increase in population of a region will result in an increased demand of various goods. Also the composition of population determines the demand of certain goods proportionately. For example, an increased number of females in the region will generate more demand for sarees, ornaments etc. 

3. Pattern of income: With a rise in income, the purchasing power of people also increases which in turn encourages the people to demand more of luxuries and comforts. 

(b) Four characteristics of labour as a factor of production: 

1. Labour is an active factor of production. Without labour, other factors of production such as land and capital cannot produce anything. Labour is a living organism which requires sympathetic treatment. 

2. Labour cannot be separated form the labourer, because the labourer will have to be present at a workplace where work is going on. The worker and the service rendered by a worker go together. She/he cannot sell labour like land and capital. 

3. Labour is Perishable which cannot be stored. If a worker does not work on a particular day, her/his labour is wasted. The labourer has to sell his labour immediately, irrespective of the prices paid in terms of wages. Hence, labour has a weak bargaining power. 

4. All labourers are not equally efficient. Labour can improve its efficiency by investing capital on worker’s education and training and providing proper working environment and incentives.

(a) Two sources of Government income or revenue are: 

1. Taxes: Direct as well as Indirect. 

2. Administrative Revenue: Fees, fines, penalties etc. 

(b) Wealth is anything which has utility, scarcity and is transferable. Capital is a produced means of production. It is first produced by man and then used for the other production of more goods. Since capital goods have all the features of wealth so all capital is wealth. But only that part of wealth is capital which is used in further production of goods. 

For example: Furniture in our house is our wealth but not capital but a car owned by a taxi-driver is his wealth as well as capital. 

(c) 1. Sales Tax: Indirect Tax 

2. Income Tax: Direct Tax 

3. Wealth Tax: Direct Tax 

4. Excise Duty: Indirect Tax 

(d) 1. In a fixed deposit money is deposited in a lump sum for a fixed period of time and cannot be withdrawn before the expiry of the time period. In a savings deposit money can be deposited any number of times and can also be easily withdrawn with the help of cheques. 

2. The rate of interest paid on fixed deposit is the highest whereas a nominal interest is paid on a savings deposit.

(a) Public expenditure refers to the expenses of the public authorities—Central, State and Local Government—either in protecting the citizens or in promoting their economic and social welfare and promoting economic development. 

Public expenditure promotes the economic development as follows: 1. Public expenditure on infrastructural development such as power, irrigation, transport etc. improves the production efficiency of industries and increases employment opportunities. 

2. It encourages private enterprises by initialising state-owned financial and banking institutions to provide cheap credits. 

(b) ‘Efficiency of labour’ implies the productive capacity of a worker to do more or better work or both during a specified period of time. 

Causes of Low Efficiency of Indian Labour: 

1. Climate: The hot and humid climate of most of the states of India is a factor that deprives the people of the capacity to work hard and the ability to display Iiigh efficiency. 

2. Wages not determined by efficiency: Workers have the incentive to become more efficient only if higher efficiency leads to higher income. This is, in many cases, not true in India. Sometimes, the employers are to blame for this. They do not give to the efficient workers the higher incomes that they deserve. 

3. Inadequate Training facilities: There is also dearth of training facilities for the workers in India. Even the workers who wish to receive special training (or the employers who wish to send their workers to such training programmes) cannot do so in view of the limited facilities. 

4. Poor Working Conditions: The poor and unhealthy working conditions in most of the Indian factories (specially in the unorganised sector) aggravates the problem of inefficiency of Indian workers.

(a) The two primary functions of money are as follow: 

1. Medium of Exchange: It serves as a medium of exchange and facilitates the buying and selling of goods and services. 

2. Measure of Value: Money acts as a measure of value. The value of each good or service is measured in terms of money (called price). Money also serves as a unit of account. 

(b) We see automobile industry in incomplete process of complex division of labour. In this kind of system the work is divided into different processes and sub-processes in such a way that only a part or a component of a commodity is produced. 

(c) Sunk Capital: It is that kind of capital, which can be used to produce only one type of commodity or service. For example, an ice factory. 

Floating Capital: It is that category of capital, in which all items can be put to alternate uses. For example: money, fuels etc. 

(d) Fixed income group class is worst affected by inflation because the purchasing power of their fixed income goes on decreasing with rising prices. Borrower gains in inflation because the value of money was high when they borrowed but came down when they repaid their debts. But if debtor take loans during inflationary period the position is reversed. 

(e) Entrepreneur is the only factor of production that earns profit because in the entire business sphere no other factor of production shares the loss incurred by the entrepreneur. Entrepreneur is one, who performs all the functions associated with entrepreneurship (including risk bearing).

In recent times public expenditure has become important because it promotes social welfare. In fact, modem government is making welfare states. Public expenditure, thus has become unavoidable for them. 

Reasons for Increase in Public Expenditure: 

1. Rise in Price-Level: Due to rise in price-level public expenditure has gone up. Individuals and Government have to pay more to buy goods at high prices. 

2. Increase in Population: Government has to incur huge expenditure to meet the requirements of increasing population. 

3. Increase in Developmental Work: Central and State Governments have to incur heavy expenditure on development work. 

4. Expenditure on Internal and External Security: Central Govt has to incur huge expenditure on internal and external security. 

5. Expenditure on Welfare State: Huge expenditure is incurred on welfare items like socialinsurance, free medical aid, free education etc.

(a) Five ways in which consumers ate exploited in the market: 

1. Changing over maximum retail price [MRPs]. 

2. Supply of products injurious to health. 

3. Misleading advertisements. 

4. Under weights and false measures. 

5. Incomplete information on packaged goods, etc. 

(b) Consumers must unite themselves to overcome threats posed by business firms. The voices of consumers speak louder than the voice of a consumer about 500 consumer associations, are working in the field of consumer protection. 

Some of them are: Consumer Guidance Society of India, Mumbai, and Common Cause, New Delhi. These consumer associations reflect the growth of consumer awareness in India. Many non Government organizations are stepping forward to give protection to consumers and to make them aware of their rights. For legal redressal under consumer protection act, a consumer must be aware ofthe provisions of the consumer protection act. The Consumer Protection Act, 1986 has established a three-tier judicial machinery for redressal of consumer disputes. Various rights have been given to consumer, so that they become aware and avail them.

Given quadratic equation is : 

x² + 4kx + (k² – k + 2) = 0 

For equal roots, we have 

b² – 4 ac = 0 

⇒ (4k)² – 4(1) (k² - k + 2) = 0 

⇒ 16k² – 4k² + 4k – 8 = 0 

⇒ 12k² + 4k – 8 = 0 

or 3k² + k – 2 = 0 

⇒ 3k² + 3k – 2k - 2 = 0 

⇒ 3k(k + 1) – 2(k + 1) = 0 

⇒ (k + 1)(3k – 2) = 0 

⇒ k + 1 = 0 or 3k – 2 = 0 

k = – 1 or k = 2/3

(i) Menarche : It is the stage when a girl menstruates for the first time. 

(ii) Actinomorphic symmetry: When a regular flower can be divided into two equal halves through any plane.

Secretory phase begins after ovulation. Corpus luteum the remnants of graafian follicle under influence of LH secretes hormones namely progestrone and estrogen. Both LH and progestrone help in further growth and thickening of endometrium and its gland become secretory endometriums fully ready for the attachment and nourishment of blastocyst. In case high presence of progestrone reduce level of LH and FSH which result in reduced synthesis of progestrone. Endometrium breakdown and moves out in the form of mucus and blood. Corpus luteum degenerate into white body called corpus albicans.

(i) In this type of vascular bundles, xylem and phloem occur alternately on different radii e.g., in roots. 

(ii) Root pressure is the pressure exerted by the liquid contents of the fully turgid cortex cells of the root, forcing some of it into the xylem vessels and up through the stem. It is a vital phenomenon and depends upon the activity of the living cells of root.

(i) Before fertilizing the ovum, the sperm prepares itself for the act of fertilization and undergoes many changes. These changes in a sperm just prior to fertilization are called capacitation. 

(ii) It is the onset of menstruation in a young female at the age of about 12-13 years.

Secretory Phase : The secretory phase of the menstrual cycle extends from 12- 14 days. The production of LH continued in secretory phase in which a yellowish body called the corpus luteum is developed from empty ruptured follicle. Progesterone released by corpus luteum together with estrogen produced by the ovaries, produces changes in the secondary sex organs to prepare the body for pregnancy. Since these changes are due to the progesterone, this phase is also known as progesterone phase or luteal phase. 

Secretory phase is associated with following changes in uterus and ovary.

(1) Changes in uterus : In this phase, thickness of endometrial progressively increases. The arteries of the endometrium become coiled and glycogen content of the endometrial epithelium increases. Towards the end of the secretory phase, the endometrium is thick, soft and richly supplied with .blood. These changes are the obvious preparation for providing a suitable environment for fertilized ovum. The uterine glands become active and are filled with secretions and uterine movements are reduced so that uterus may not contract. However, in the absence of pregnancy, these measures are abortive.

(2) Changes in ovary : In case, the ovum is not fertilized, progesterone level decrease as the corpus luteum undergoes degeneration and the thickened endometrium is shed in the form of a menstrual flow and once again initiating the menstrual cycle.

Transpiration: 

1. Water is lost in the form of vapours. 

2. It mainly occurs through the stomata. 

3. Only pure water is lost out. 

4. Mostly it occurs during the day when stomata are open in light.

Guttation: 

1. Water is lost in liquid form. 

2. It occurs through the hydathodes. 

3. Water moving out contains minerals dissolved in it. 

4. It occurs at night or early morning hours.

 (ii)

(i) Amniocentesis : It is a technique in which amniotic fluid is withdrawn from the uterus of a pregnant lady and the amniotic cells are cultured and studied for cytological observations to determine any chromosomal abnormalities. 

(ii) Polyembryony : The phenomenon of presence of more than one normal embryo in a seed is called polyembryony. The extra embryos may be nucellar or integumental in origin. e.g., orange fruits.

According to the theory the change in turgor pressure that open and close the stomata results from the reversible absorption and loss of potassium ions (K⁺ ). Light induced stomata opening is accompanied by transport of K₊ from subsidiary cell to the guard cells. It is an energy-requiring process.

During day, starch produced change into malic acid which dissociates in malate anions and H⁺ in guard cell H⁺ is exchanged with K⁺ in subsidiary cells. It is active process. K⁺ ions and malate ions results in increase osmotic pressure and water moves into guard cells from surrounding cells. Increase in turgor, results in opening stomata.

During night, the reversal of K⁺ – K^– pump, low osmotic pressure of guard cell, inducing closure of stomata through exosmosis.

It is defined as the current flowing per unit area. The relation J = v ne.

(i) Spermatogenesis is a special type of reduction divison which occur in testes and result in the production of sperms. Oogenesis is a special type of reduction divison which occur in ovaries and result in the formation of ova/eggs. 

(ii) When there are many free carpel in a flower-apocarpous. When two or more than two carpels are fused to form a single compound carpel- syncarpous.

Boron and cadmium.

It is laminated to reduce the effects of eddy currents

Pleiotropy involves the ability of a gene to have multiple phenotypic effects, because it influences a number of characters simultaneously. The genes are called pleiotropic genes.

Example : A mutated recessive gene for the disorder phenylketonuria produces multiple phenotypic expressions -mental retardation and reduction in hair and skin pigmentation. Phenylketonuria is due to autosomal recessive trait. It lacks an enzyme to convert phenylalanine to tyrosine. Phenylalanine accumulates in the body. Accumulation in brain results in mental retardation.

Angular width of central maxima = 2θ = ±\(\frac{2\lambda}{a}\)

If D be the distance between the slit and the screen, then linear width 'x' of the central maxima is given by

 x = d x 2θ = D x \(\frac{2\lambda}{a}\) = \(\frac{2D\lambda}{a}\)

As the width of the slit(a) is increased, the linear and angular width of central maxima goes on decreasing because x ∝ \(\frac{1}{a}\)

The human beings who have antigen on RBCs are Rh⁺ while others who do not have are Rh. It is through Rh⁺ is dominated over Rh- which is recessive.

In a marriage between Rh^– woman and Rh+ man, when a woman become pregnant, she becomes sensitive while carrying a first Rh⁺ child within her womb. It is because some of RBCs from the developing embryo get into the blood stream of mother during development causing her to produce anti-Rh-antibodies. The first child of such parents is normal and is delivered safely. However, if such a mother get pregnant again the resulting Rh⁺ foetuses will be exposed to anti-Rh-bodies produced by the mother.

As a result serious damage to RBCs of the developing embryo will occur causing erythroblastosis foetilis. The disease leads to the death of the developing embryo before birth or after parturition.

Coherent sources are sources which emit light of the same frequency, wavelength, amplitude and of the same phase or a constant phase difference. These sources are usually derived from the same source.