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The salt prepared by the method of direct combination is Iron (III) chloride  .

Lone pair of electrons are those valence electrons which do not take part in bonding and remain nonbonded.

(a) Two factors that affect the climate in India are : 

1. Altitude: As the height increases temperature decreases at the rate of 1°C for every 165 m of ascend. 

Example : Nainital has lower temperature than Agra. 

2. Distance from the sea: Places close to the sea have lower range of temperature i.e. moderate climate and places away from the influence of the sea have higher range of temperature i.e. continental climate. 

Example : Mumbai has lower range of temperature than Delhi as it is close to the sea. 

(b) Two differences between the rainfall that occur from June to September and from 

December to February are : 

1. Rainfall in June to September is caused by S.W. monsoon whereas rainfall in December to February is caused by temperate cyclones (western disturbances) originating in Mediterranean sea.

2. Rain in June to September is heavy ranging between 75 to 150 cm. whereas rain in Dec. to February is only 5 to 7 cm but beneficial for wheat and barley. 

(c) Geographical Reasons: 

(i) Kerala has the longest rainy season because it lies in the extreme south of India and it is the first and last to see the monsoon. 

(ii) Konkan coast experiences orographic rainfall because it lies of the wind ward side of western ghats when south west monsoon strikes it. 

(iii) Kanpur in Uttar Pradesh has a higher range of temperature than that of Chennai because Kanpur is located away from the sea and the equator. 

(d) (i) May is the hottest month. 

(ii) Annual rainfall is 131.9 cm. 

(iii) Maximum rainfall is received by North-East monsoon winds.

Cultivable waste is the land available for cultivation but not used for cultivation for one reason or the other. This land has been abandoned for some reasons such as lack of water, salinity or alkalinity of soil, soil erosion, waterlogging, unfavourable physiographic position, human neglect or deficiencies occurred in soil due to the faulty agriculture practices.

(i) Characteristic of black soil : It is able to retain moisture. 

(ii) Characteristic of red soil : It is rich in potash and become fertile with proper use of fertilizers and irrigation.

Definition: 

(i) Pedogenesis: Process of soil formation is called pedogenesis. 

(ii) Humus: Decayed remains of plants, animal manures and dead animals is called Humus. It is an essential element in determining the fertility of soil. 

(iii) Bhangar: Older alluvium soil found about 30 m above sea level in river terraces, light grey in colour and calcareous clay is called humus.

Geographic terms are : 

(i) Leaching 

(ii) Gully erosion.

(i) One main problem of the silk industry is that it has a limited market as it is very expensive. 

(ii) Two products of the jute industry are upholstry and carpets. 

(iii) Synthetic fibres are popular because they are cheap, durable and easy to maintain.

Indo-Gangetic plain is a flat and featureless plain which has its own diversities of relief. Keeping their diversities in view, the plain can be divided in four divisions: The Bhabar, the Tarai, the Bhangar and the Khadar.

The Bhangar is an area which is composed of old alluvium and forms the alluvial terrace above the level of the flood plains. Bhangar area also has some striking differences in the local relief.

(a) One such difference is found in the deltaic region of Bengal, it has extensive laterite formation in the Bhangar known as “Barind.”. 

(b) “Bhur” is another such difference found in upper Ganga-Yamuna doab. Bhur has been formed due to the weathering of soft fine grained topsoil, where only the coarse grained soil is left behind.

Geographic terms are : 

(i) Leaching

(ii) Gully erosion.

Large scale industry that we identify with : 

(i) Kanpur : Woollen industry. 

(ii) Rourkela : Iron and Steel plant. 

(iii) Pune : Electronics Industry. 

(iv) Mangalore : Petrochemical Industry.

Virgin Vegetation are often biodiversity hotspots because these areas are rich in plant and animal species. 

The Nilgiris in Western Ghats and Gulf of Mannar in Tamil Nadu are best examples.

According to 2011 census, Delhi’s population density is 11,297 persons per km² . The high population density is mainly owing to the large-scale in migration that was taken place. Delhi, being the largest commercial center, attracts huge chunks of population from adjoining areas. Rapid growth and development of key industries such as IT, hotels, banking, media and tourism has absorbed the migrants resulting in high density.

(i) Iron and steel industry is called basic industry because it supports fertilizers and cement industry. It is linked with the economic development of a country. 

(ii) Mini steel plant is a unit that uses cheaply available scrap iron in the electric arc furnaces to make steel which is futher rolled and shaped into necessary products.

(i) Rural to Rural : Girls marry and migrate to their in law’s house after marriage. The whole female population migrate to short and long distances.

(ii) Migration amongst males from rural to city is due to very limited employment and educational opportunities at rural areas.

Fossils are the remains, tracks, impressions or traces of organisms that existed in the past.

Drawbacks of Darwinism : 

(i) Though his theory is based on the presence of variations, he could not explain the origin of variation nor could he attach any importance to mutations. 

(ii) Darwin could not explain the origin of new characters. It only provide mechanism of modification of already existing characters. 

(iii) Over specialised organs are those which have grown beyond their maximum usefulness. They have become a hindrance for the animal, e.g., branched antlers of deer, tusk of elephant, etc.

The two drawbacks of land use pattern in India are : 

1. Division of agricultural land into small and fragmented holdings. It is a serious problem in densely populated and intensively cultivated states of Kerala, West Bengal, Bihar and Eastern Uttar Pradesh. 

2. Cultural Waste: The land was used in the past for agriculture, but has been abandoned for reasons like lack of water, salinity or alkalinity of soil, soil erosion, waterlogging, etc.

Measures to improve it :

1. Consolidation of holding of land. Reallocation of holdings which are fragmented. 

2. Cooperative farming. 

3. Cultivable wasteland can be brought under cultivation by reclaiming the land. In the interest of long-term conservation and maintenance of Eco balance, this land should be put under afforestation and not under crop farming.

(i) The unique characteristic of the growth during this period is the period of high growth up to 1981, has definite signs of slowing down of growth rate of population after 1981.

(ii) This declining trend of growth rate of population is a positive indicator of the official efforts of birth control and people’s own inclination to opt for smaller families.

Density of population is a ratio of total population to the total area of the country or a part of it.

\(Density\, of\, Population = \frac{ Total\,Population}{Total\,area}\)

India’s density of population as per the 2011 census is 382 persons per sq. km.

‘Family is a universal institution.’ It is the foundation of society. It is present in every society and in every age. It forms the basic unit of social organisation and is hard to imagine how society could function without the family. 

The reasons for universal existence of families are as follows : 

• It is the only unit which fulfills the basic needs of the procreation and upbringing of children. 

• It legitimises the sexual union between male and female. 

• It fulfills the basic human needs of acceptance and belongingness. 

• The family provide the individual with primary socialization, which helps the individual to become accepted into society. 

• It helps in transmission of culture from one generation to another. 

• It is the basic production and consumption unit.

Communalism refers to blind faith in religion and the act of using religion as an instrument for mobilizing people in the arena of politics. In a country like India with many religious faiths, some politicians have tried to use communalism for provoking people against other religious groups for fulfilling their own selfish motives. 

The issues related with communalism in India can be curbed by the following measures : 

• Abolition of communalist parties, so that religion and politics can be kept separate. 

• Imparting secular education in the schools and colleges. 

• Developing the attitude of tolerance towards other religions with the help of mass media. For example-advertisements like; ek chidiya anek chidiya. 

• Promoting inter-religious marriages, which would help in inter-mingling of people from different religions and sects. 

• Proper use of mass media should be done to spread tolerance and securalism.

A ‘Contact with the wider society has led to tribal transformation’. This statement is true only to a little extent. The condition of the tribals inspite of modem means of education, science and technology, is same, pathetic and backward. Though a number of schemes and development programs are implemented for the welfare of the tribal, the results are still insignificant. On one hand, caste based inequity is still prevalent. On the other hand, tribal regions are simmering with discontent. 

Technological developments instead of helping them to march towards development are making them more deprived and are ravaging them with increased severity. The situation in some of the tribal areas is especially disturbing such as the demand for separate Bodo land. Their virtually forced displacement for the sake of so called development projects is making the condition worst for them, making them restless and insecure. 

Neither the reservation policy, nor the ban of untouchability has helped in betterment of their position and their situation is same over the years. They are still subject to exploitation and severe kind of discrimination. The reasons for their deprived condition are that mainly they are suspicious towards the development as they think it might lead to shattering of their identity and might snatch their linguistic unity and territorial uniqueness. Secondly, though several development programs are there for the welfare of the tribal, they are hardly aware about them due to their location in the remote areas, illiteracy, lack of means of communication and linguistic barrier. In fact the policies are used by the people of the creamy layer to fulfill their selfish motives. They misuse them by making fake identity claims through forged documents.

‘Communalism’ refers to aggressive chauvinism based on religious identity. Chauvinism itself is an attitude which considers one’s group as legitimate and worthy, while others as inferior and illegitimate. In other words, it is an aggressive political ideology linked to religion. Since, India is a multi-religion country, communalism is often used as a tool to serve the selfish motive of the politicians. Communal is a sensitive issue in context of India because it is recurrent source of violence and tensions.

Communal riots are conducted to maintain the false pride of the respective communities. People go to the extent of looting, raping and massacring others in the name of protecting their religious identities and upholding their religious ideologies. Some examples of communal riots are: Anti- Sikh riots of Delhi in 1984 under Congress government and Anti-Muslim violence in Gujarat in 2002 under BJP government.

Following are the different features of a family : 

• It is a universal institution which is found in each and every society. 

• It is a fundamental institution which is established on the basis of impulses associated with mating, procreation and parental care. 

• It has limited size which is defined by biological conditions which it be transcended. 

• It exercises profound influence over its members and moulds their personalities. 

• It teaches the meaning of responsibility and the need of cooperation to its members.

Nuclear family is a group that comprises a man, his wife and their children, both biological or adopted. It is basically an independent family. It is generally said that the members of a nuclear family always live together in the same household. The nuclear family is divided into-a) complete nuclear family and incomplete nuclear family. 

Two important features of a nuclear family are : 

Nuclear family is smaller in size : It is comprised of immediate family members such as husband and wife, and their child/children. Sometimes the family may have a single parent and his/her child/ children. 

Nuclear family is grounded on a very strong bond of emotion and sentiment : It is built upon sentiments of love, devotion, affection, sympathy, cooperation and friendship owing to the fact that there are just a few immediate members in the family,

Following are the features of Indian tribes: 

• Common habitat : Different tribes have different territorial area under which a tribal population lives. 

• Common language : A particular tribe has a definite language with no script. The language might be sub-divided into a dialect according to the particular area. 

• Common religion : Religion plays a major role in the lives of the tribal people. A tribal group has a common deity or totem which represents that tribal group. 

• Endogamous group : All tribes practice clan exogamy and tribe endogamy, hence are endogamous groups. 

• Unity : All the members of the tribe have a sense of unity. It is a self sufficient group which lends a helping hand to their members when in need.

The geographical classification of tribes as given by Guha is as follows : 

North and North-Eastern Zone : The northern part includes tribes from Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Eastern Punjab, North Uttar Pradesh, 

e.g., Gaddis, Jads, Kinner, Pangwal and Jaunsari, Tharu, Bhoksa, Bhotia. The north-eastern zone of India includes,tribes of Assam, Manipur, Tripura, 

e.g., Nagas, Kuki, Khasi, Lushai, Garo, etc. 

The Central or Middle Zone : It comprises of the plateaus and mountain belt between Indo-gangetic plain. It includes the tribes’like the Mundas, the Todas, the Santhals of Middle India and the Chenchu tribes of Western India. 

The Southern Zone : It includes tribes of Andhra Pradesh, Coorg, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, etc. (Todas, Chenchu, Panyan, etc.) 

The racial classification of tribes is as follows: 

Proto-Australoid : The physical features of people are short to medium body structure, long and high head, broad and small face along with small flattened nose. It includes tribal of middle and central zone, e.g., Munda of Chota Nagpur, Ho of Bihar, Chenchu of South India, etc. 

Mongoloid : It includes tribes of North India and Uttarakhand hilly region. The typical physical features include yellowish skin colour, straight and dark hair, prominent cheek bones, flat nose and almond shaped eyes, epicanthic fold, 

e.g., Bhotia, Naga, Lepcha, Khasi, etc. 

Negrois : The typical physical features of such tribes include black skin colour, black woolly hair, flat lips, flat nose, etc., 

e.g., Irula, Kadar, Paliyan, Onge, Angami Naga and Jarwa.

Social institutions are the building blocks of the society. 

The features of the social institutions are as follows : 

• Social institutions are the means to control social behavior of the individuals. 

• Social institutions are dependent upon the activities of the people. 

• Social institutions are more stable than other means of social control. 

• Social institutions are a collection of social values, norms, rules and regulations. 

• Social institutions are a source of completion of specific needs and objectives.

An economic good is a consumable item that is useful to people, but is scarce in relation to it’s demand, so the human effort is required to obtain it. On the contrary, free goods (such as air) are naturally available in abundance and need no conscious effort to obtain them.

Following are the functions of dormitories in tribal India : 

Safety : 

Since the dormitories are usually at the center of a tribal community, it is thought they were created to have warriors organized, together and ready at a moment’s notice in times of battle. As a 

Recreational Centre : Dormitories acts as a recreational centre for different plays and also serves as a guest house. 

Community : The dormitories create a sense of community and help ensure the longevity of the tribe and its culture. 

Tradition : Tribes in ancient India used to live in communal houses and allowed for everyone to work together. With this tradition, the tribes may have tried to recreate this on a smaller scale. 

Separation : Dormitories might have been created to segregate the genders, so the males and females did not have access to each other, keeping them pure.

Ethnicity refers to a group of people who have great affinity with each other based on similarities of language, religion, value, region, ancestry, etc. 

Following are the salient features of ethnicity : 

A Feeling of Ethnocentrism : An ethnic group considers others as inferior to its own group. 

Common territory : An ethnic group generally occupies a common territory. 

Ascribed Membership : Membership into an ethnic group is acquired by being bom into it, thus it is ascriptive in nature. 

A Sense of Community : The members of an ethnic group have strong ‘we’ feeling and consider themselves as belonging to the same community. 

Unique Cultural Traits : Most ethnic groups are identified on the basis of their unique cultural traits such as language, culture, religion, etc.

(i) Settlement patterns in : 

Figure A: Checker Board or Rectangular pattern. 

Figure B : Star-like pattern.

(ii) The characteristic features are :

Figure A : Checker board or rectangular pattern of settlement develops in villages at the meeting place of two roads. The streets are either parallel or perpendicular to each other and the settlement takes a rectangular shape. These are found in the northern plains, especially in the Ganga-Yamuna Doab and also in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh states of South India.

Figure B : A village acquires a star-like pattern of settlement when streets radiate from a common centre. Such villages are found in Tamil Nadu and in the Upper Ganga plain.

(i) Urbanisation refers to the population shift from rural areas, the gradual increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas, and the ways in which each society adapts to this change.

(ii) The main components of urbanisation are : 

1. Population pressure and lack of resources in the rural areas are the push factors for urbanization. 

2. People migrate to urban areas due to the availability of better standards of living, well-paid jobs, greater opportunities, better health care, and education facilities.

The Geographical Factors: Indian has great diversity in terms of its relief features. The resources. Industries, soil, irrigation etc., are not similar and therefore they also cause differences among the people.

Political Factors: The administrative policies and decisions as well as the developmental plans taken at the national level may not satisfy all people of the country and these people, who remain dissatisfied, may feel that their interest are not properly safeguarded and may result in regional feeling.

Economic Factors: In the present times, uneven developments in different parts of the country is a prime reason for regionalism. There are certain regions in the country where industrial development, educational and health facilities, communication-net work agricultural development has made sufficient progress as compared to others. Thus the feeling of regionalism develops due to negligence of the backward areas. Language culture, customs etc., these factors have played major role in creating the feelings of regionalism, especially among illiterates or less educated people.

The geographical factors: Indian has great diversity in terms of its relief features. The resources Industries, soil, irrigation etc., are not similar and therefore they also cause differences among the people.

Political factors: The administrative policies and decisions, as well as the developmental plans taken at the national level, may not satisfy all people of the country and these people, who remain dissatisfied, may feel that their interest are not properly safeguarded and may result in feeling of alienation thus leading to regionalism.

Economic Factors: In the present times, uneven developments in different parts of the country is a prime reason for regionalism. There are certain regions in the country where industrial development, educational and health facilities, communication network and agricultural development has made sufficient progress as compared to others. Thus the feeling of regionalism develops due to negligence of the backward areas. 

Language, culture, customs: These factors have played major role in creating the feelings of regionalism, especially among illiterates or less educated people.

This amendment implements the article 40 of the Directive Principles of State Policy which says that ‘State shall take steps to organize village panchayats and endow them with such powers and authority as may be necessary to enable them to function as units of self-government’. The Act gives a Constitutional status to the Panchayati Raj institutions. The State Governments are under the Constitutional obligation to adopt the new Panchayati Raj System in accordance with the provisions of the Act.

Features Of The Rural Local Self-Government:

The Act provides for a three-tier system of the Panchayati Raj in the States, Panchayat means an institution of local self-Govemment for rural areas.

Gram Sabha: The Act provides for a Gram Sabha as the foundation of the Rural local self-government system. It is a body consisting of persons registered in the electoral rolls of the village comprised within the area of the Panchayat at the village level. It is a Village Assembly consisting of all the registered voters in the area of a Panchayat. It shall exercise such powers and perform such functions at the village level as determined by the State Legislature.

Duration of Panchayats: The Act provided for a five-year term of office to the Panchayat at every level. The Act provided for the reservation of seats for the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes in every Panchayat. The Act provides for the reservation of not less than one-third of the total number of seats for women.

The State Legislature endows the Panchayats with such powers and authority with respect to preparation of plans for economic development and social justice The superintendence, direction and control of the preparation of electoral rolls and the conduct of all elections to the Panchayats shall be vested in the State Election Commission.

Despite the Constitution providing the details of the functions and powers of the Panchayati Raj institutions, there are glaring loopholes that must be plugged as soon as possible.

Adequate devolution of powers: States should take proper steps to decentralize funds, functions and functionaries to the Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRI) to empower them in the discharge of functions. Furthermore, it is important to make available, enough resources to the PRIs to complete the responsibilities. Many Gram Panchayats even lack a permanent Secretary for handling the paperwork. Thus, manpower and infrastructure both have to be upgraded for monitoring and planning the schemes. Although there is a provision of computing facilities being provided to the PRIs, only 20- percent of Gram Panchayats actually have computers and even fewer have the know-how to operate them.

Proper Bureaucratic control: Sarpanchs of Gram Panchayats have to spend a lot of time in the Block Offices to ask for funds and approval. Thus, these checks and balances, that make the Sarpanchs insubordinate to the other officials and waste time and efforts, should be controlled to make the process smoother and faster. At times, due to loose bureaucratic control, many parallel offices are created for certain schemes that lead to more corruption and evil malpractices. Thus, this control has to be given to the PRIs who know their villages far better than other individuals.

Making funds available: Social audits are less likely to be organized as the PRIs depend on the governments for funding. Resources should be made available to the Panchayats and audits must be done to ensure proper usage of funds and quicker implementation of schemes. A considerable amount of funds should also be spent on educating the PRI personnel about their duties, roles and responsibilities. If they do not know the schemes and programs of the government properly then, they would not be able to implement them as well.

The three challenges faced by rural Local Self¬Government after passage of 73rd amendment to constitution of India are as follows: The decentralization is observed in the Panchayat elections and people are participating in it, in large numbers yet, the administrative and fiscal decentralization has remained limited. The State Government failed to give up the control of administration and finance to the local bodies.

The Panchayat has not been granted the powers of revenue generation. Hence, their functional autonomy remained restricted. The Gram Sabha is also not given power to ensure greater participation of people and transparency in working of Panchayats.

The power given to State Election Commission also vary for every state. They should be given more powers related to panchayat elections, viz., number of constituencies, rotation of reservation seats in panchayat elections, finalization of electoral rolls, etc. The recommendations given by state election commission are not also considered seriously.

Under 73rd amendment, the Panchayati raj system has the following three-tier structure: 

Gram Panchayat at village level: The gram panchayat is executive of Gram Sabha. The members of the Gram Panchayat are elected by the Gram Sabha. Every adult member of the village has right to vote in the panchayat elections. 

The Gram Panchayat has the following responsibilities :

• To provide clean drinking water in the village and disinfecting the tanks, wells etc. 

• To improve sanitary conditions in the village. 

• To ensure better healthcare facilities for the village by opening dispensaries and hospitals.

2. Panchayat Samiti at block level: The members of Panchayat Samiti or Block Development Committee are elected directly by the people through universal adult franchise. The ex-officio member of Panchayat Samiti are MLAs, MPs, SDMs and BDOs of the areas. Besides ex-officio members, the others are elected members. Some seats are kept reserved for SC and ST members. 30% seats are kept reserved for women candidates. The term of Block Samiti is five years. 

The functions of Block Samiti are as follows :

• To look after the working of Gram Panchayat. 

• To promote scientific and modem agri-cultural practice in the area and to distribute fertilizers, high yield seeds and scientific equipment to the farmers.

3. Zilla Parishad at district level: The Chairman of Zilla Parishad is elected by the Chairman of Panchayat Samities in the district. The ex-officio members are MLAs, MPs, SDMs, Collector and Deputy Collector. For every state government, there is a financial commission to review the financial condition of these institutions and to review the allocation of funds and grant-in-aid. 

The functions of Zilla Parishad are as follows :

• To co-ordinate the working of Gram Panchayats and Panchayat Samitis in the district.

• To study the annual budget of the Panchayat Samiti and to approve it.

The view that makes an individual or a group feel that their own culture/religion/race etc. is superior as compared to those of other groups is termed as Ethnocentrism. This is one of the causes of prejudice. This term was coined by William Graham Sumner.

Avuncupotestal family refers to the one in which the authority is vested with the maternal uncle. The nephews and nieces show the greatest loyalty towards the maternal uncle and work for him and inherit his property.

‘Assimilation is a process whereby attitudes of many persons are united and thus, develop into a unified group.’ —Bogardus Assimilation refers to a process in which persons or groups acquire the culture of other groups with which they come into contact, by adopting their attitudes behavior, values and ways of life.

Media includes various means of communication such as newspapers, magazines, television, radio, films, CD’s, video games, etc. It is also known as mass media as it reaches a large number of people. 

It acts as an important agency of bringing about social change as : 

• It helps in forming public opinion regarding various spheres of life, viz., politics, fashion, economy, society, etc. 

• It disseminates information about what’s happening around different parts of world. 

• People gain information through media and try to emulate it in their own lives, for example information about latest fashion trend in west easily spreads through the mass media and gets adopted by eastern countries. 

• Media is also sensitizing peopel about the laws, governmental policies and programmes, sanitation, various incurables diseases and their remedies, etc. 

• It is making people aware about the degrading environment, gloal warming, etc.

Patriarchal ideology refers to belief that the supreme authority resides with the males. The . eldest male member is considered to be the head of the family and is responsible for all decision making. The patriarchal society is patrilocal (i.e. children live in the father’s house) and patrilineal {i.e., the lineage is traced along the male line). However, such an ideology has adversely affected the status of women and they are considered inferior to men. 

They are denied freedom even within their homes and are denied decision making authority in relation to important matters. Sons are considered to be the permanent members of the family and they inherit family property whereas, a daughter is considered to be a liability. Women also receive unequal treatment regarding basic facilities such as education, nutrition and healthcare.

Beliefs refers to a cognitive state of mind where some person places faith or trust in some person or thing. They refer to attitudes towards mythological, supernatural or spiritual aspects of religion, a system of knowledge or understanding shared by a group. For example, faith in supernatural power (animism) is a belief. Rituals refer to a behavioral aspects of repetitive actions and sacred words. Enchanting of mantras or performing of religious rites is termed as ritual.

D-37, LajpatKunj 

Agra, 282001 

14th May, 2007 

The Drug Controller General Directorate of Health Services 

New Delhi: 1100049 

Dear Sir, 

Subject: Exposing the sale of spurious medicines I am writing this letter on behalf of numerous residents of Agra. I would like to draw your attention to the recent advertisements published in our daily local newspaper “Amar Ujala” and “Dainik Jagran”. There is a pharmacentical company called “Miracle Cures” which is behind these advertisements. According to these advertisements the Avian-flu or Chicken-gunia as it is popularly called and other kinds of influenza can be cured within seven days after taking a regular dose of this medicine. They claim that it is a miracle which has no parallel in the world of medicine. 

Those who have taken these tablets have a different story to tell. They say that these medicines are very expensive. A complete course for a week costs about Rs. 1500. To add to these there are some tonics and vitamin supplements which cost another Rs. 600. So the total amount comes to about Rs. 2100. This is a significant amount for an average man. 

The section of people who are being fooled the most are the ignorant farmers. This medicine company has done much propaganda in the villages, distributing pamphlets and offering lucky draws and surprise gifts to those who buy the complete course of these medicines. 

The doctors of the town say that these tablets are absolutely fake. They only suppress the symptoms and cause damage to our nervous system. Some patients have even complained of shivering, convulsions and fits after eating these medicines. 

We make a serious and sincere appeal to you to please take charge of the situation. Get these tablets tested and expose the racket of spurious medicines. We will took forward to a speedy and favourable response from your side. 

Thanking you, 

Yours faithfully, 

Anil Jha

23-A, Kamla Nagar 

Agra 282004 

14th May, 

2007 My dearest Grandma, 

Please do accept my heart-felt congratulations on this very special day, your birthday. 

Just imagine you have completed a century grandma, you are hundred years old! All my friends join me in conveying our birthday wishes to you. 

I am sorry that I am unable to be home on this grand day. Had it not been for my Engineering entrance exam, tomorrow, I surely would have been there with you. Grandma I would like to express my gratitude for all that you have done for me through all these years. Looking back on all these years I still remember the many happy hours we spent together. Remember, you never slept in the afternoons and kept busy with some craft or the other. During my 6th standard at school you helped me to complete my S.U.P.W. projects. 

Do you remember how patiently you taught me to hold my knitting needles? I still have that multicoloured muffler which you and I made together. I have preserved it for its memories attached to you. I am also very thankful to you for inspiring me to create beautiful objects out of waste material. I still take pleasure in creating paper machine boxes, small dolls made of old stocking, doll’s furniture made out of match boxes and what not! Some of my friends really wonder from where I learnt all these things and who was my brilliant’teacher. When I told them it was you, they were filled with admiration. 

Even my first cooking-lessons were taken by you. During my tenth standard, I had taken home-science and you helped me to learn the various recipes by demonstrating r them. Not only I but many of my friends owe their culinary skills to you. 

Let me take this opportunity to admire the manner in which you have lived your life. You faced many critical phases in your life. Grandpa’s death when you were just thirty five, the illness of my maternal uncle and the economic crisis at home. All these did not deter you. You still remained calm and positive. Perhaps your deep faith in God has also helped you to withstand all these difficulties. 

Once again, do accept my regards and best wishes on this memorable day. I will try to come and meet you as soon as possible. 

With love and regards,

Meena

(a) 

1. will be remembered 

2. was 

3. taught 

4. used 

5. wanted 

6. lay 

7. had 

8. is 

(b) 

1. in 

2. beside 

3. from 

4. on 

5. with 

6. to 

7. since 

8. for 

(c) 

1. John wanted me to review the novel which he gave me. 

2. Debjani replied to my note within a week. 

3. Raja is a popular, great footballer. 

4. Jennifer came to my rescue when she saw that I was confused. 

(d) 

1. It was a heavy price which Anne paid for her recklessness. 

2. Hardly had Ram narrated the story when he was praised. 

3. Besides being a very friendly girl, Tanuja is always cheerful. 

4. The heavy rain made them put off the garden party. 

5. I was told by Margaret not to forget to meet her the next day. 

6. Though I had warned Dev yet he ignored me. 

7. Since neither side was willing to compromise the business talks failed. 

8. Being very afraid, they could not speak.

(a) 

1. Startle—surprise 

2. Casual—usual 

3. grasp—hold 

(b) 

1. Michael was just passing his time in the market place, idling around looking for something naughty to do. Suddenly he saw long ladders resting on the ground, reaching up to the church spire. 

2. Michael was looking for some mischief. On seeing the spire of the church, crowned by a golden ball and weather vane, an idea entered his mind. He wanted to be the first person in this town of Flushing to stand on the golden ball beneath the weather vane. 

3. Michael managed to stand on top of the golden ball, holding on to the weather vane. This required much courage and therefore he showed that “he had a Cool head and iron nerves.” 

4. The sight of people rushing out of their shops in the market place and crowding below to watch him standing on top of the church, made Michael extremely delighted. 

5. Michael did not wait for rescue because that would have been a shameful end to his brave act. He decided to come down alone even if it cost him his life. 

6. The principal said to me, “If your attendance is less than seventy percent then you must face the consequences.”

(c)

(d) “A Narrow Escape” is the title of the summary. It was a very narrow or dangerous escape as Michael could have died at any step.