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(d) All of these

Small size seed crop is cauliflower.

Centre of origin for potato is South America.

Irrigation Requirement is equal :to Water requirment + Effective Rainfall + Ground water contribution

Total requirement of water for wheat crop is 28.0 cm.

Seed rate of carrot crop is 8-10 kg/hectare.

Water requirement is equal to Consumptive use of water + Application losses + water needed for special purposes  

Kniffin system is not the training system for apple plant.

Seed rate of composit variety of sunflower is  08 kg/hectare.

(d) All of these 

Intensive subsistence farming produces only food crop for sustaining the high population and domestic animals. It is characterized by small land holdings which are cultivated by the farmer and his family using simple tools and more labour. Often farming is further intensified by the use of fertilizers and artificial irrigation.

(d) All of these

Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh.

Post harvest technology is inter-disciplinary "science and technique" applied to horticultural/agricultural produce immediately after harvest for its protection, conservation, processing (cooling, cleaning, sorting), packaging, distribution, marketing, and utilization to meet the food and nutritional requirements of the people in relation to their needs.

(d) All of these

• Cultivation of different types of flowers for commercial purpose is known as ‘Floriculture’. 
• Floriculture has blossomed into a profitable business only in recent years. 
• India’s agro climatic conditions are very suitable for the cultivation of high quality flowers. 
• Floriculture has plays a significant role in India for following reasons :
• It has a capacity to elevate income of the farmers. 
• It engages even the women in this farming and eradicates unemployement to rural people. 
• It supports to the export of the country. 
• Considering the potentiality of this sector produces an income & employment opportunities, floriculture has been taken up by the Government of India. 
• India has been known for growing traditional flowers such as Jasmine, Mari gold, Chrysanthemum, Tuberose,. Crossandra & Aster. Commercial cultivation of tut flowers like roses, orchids, gladious, carnation, gerbera, lilum & anthyrium has become popular in recent years. 
• In India the state of Andhra Pradesh has the maximum area under floriculture & followed by Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Haryana & West Bengal.

India is predominantly an agricultural country. Different forms of agriculture are practiced in the country which depends upon a variety of physical, environmental and socio-economic conditions. The major challenges faced by the agricultural sector in India varies according to agro-ecological and historical experiences of its different regions making them region specific. Yet there are certain problems which are common and range from physical constraints to institutional hindrances. The following are the major challenges in the agricultural sector in India –

a) Environmental factors – Indian agriculture is largely dependent on monsoon. Climatic uncertainties like droughts and floods readily result in crop failure and production fluctuations. Soil erosion in various parts of India has caused loss of valuable agricultural land.

b) Economical factors – Dearth of capital is a perennial problem for Indian agriculture. Majority of Indian farmers have uneconomic farm sizes which result in subsistence level of production. The inputs of modern agriculture are also very expensive. This has led to small and marginal farmers avail loans from various institutions and money lenders. With poor loan repayment capacity, they are stuck in a vicious cycle of poverty. Along with a dearth in the capital, exploitative type of land tenure system is also practiced in India. Lack of proper implementation of land reform programmes in many areas has caused inequality in the distribution pattern of land and has resulted in poor productivity and agricultural backwardness. Increasing pressure of population on a fixed amount of agricultural land has also caused fragmentation of holdings and low productivity.

c) Social factors – Wasteful agricultural practices like shifting cultivation destroy the functional capability of agricultural land. Traditional techniques also affect agricultural productivity in India. Also, there is massive underemployment in the agricultural sector. Economically viable work is unavailable in the rural areas beyond the cropping season.

The government has undertaken various programmes to correct or combat these problems and if implemented properly will help in addressing the above issues.

(a) Various value addition from cereals 

(1) Milled product 

(a) Wheat powder/flour 

(b) Maida flour 

(c) Sooji/rava 

(2) Processed products 

(a) Malted wheat 

(b) Puffed wheat 

(c) Wheat flakes 

(3) Bakery products 

(a) Bread 

(b) Bun 

(c) Cakes/ Pasteries 

(d) Rusk/soup stick 

(e) Cookies / Biscuits 

(f) Pizza

(b) Steps in production of wheat flakes 

Raw Material: 

a) The most important raw material is grain. 

(b) Other ingredients, such as salt, yeast, sweeteners, flavoring agents, coloring agents, vitamins, minerals, and preservatives are also used. 

(c) A wide variety of flavors like chocolate, cinnamon and other spices, and fruit flavors may be added. 

(d) Vitamins and minerals are often added to wheat flakes to replace those lost during cooking. 

(e) The antioxidants BHA and BHT are the preservatives most often added to prevent them from becoming stale and rancid. 

• Preparing the grain: Grain is received at the factory, inspected, and thoroughly cleaned. 
• Making wheat flakes: Cleaned grains are tempered in bins and subsequently steamed at atmospheric pressure until they attain moisture of 21%. The steamed wheat is passed through steam rollers which ruptures the bran coat and flatten the whole grain thus making the kernels more permeable to moisture during the cooking step. The flattened kernels are then cooked in rotating retorts along with malt, salt, sugar etc. for 90 min at 20 psi steam pressure. The resulting flakes are conveyed to ovens where they are tossed in a blast of very hot air to remove remaining moisture and to toast them to a desirable color and flavor with less than 3% moisture. 
• Adding coatings: After shaping, the wheat flakes may be coated with vitamins, minerals, sweeteners, flavors, food colors, or preservatives. Packaging and storage: Prepared flakes are packed in suitable moisture proof container of suitable size. Later they stored in cool and dry place

1. Mother Plants: Area fixed for mother plants is an important part for developing a nursery. The mother plants must be true to the type and true to the variety. 

2. Pot Nursery: Are where pots are kept and sored. 

3. Poly bag nursery: The propagated plants are planted in nursery beds for better growth or hardening the plants. In general, this type of nursery bed is prepared under partial shade 

4. Ball Nursery including beds: Ball Nursery including beds of 100 m x 55 m dimension with smaller seed beds. 

5. Workshed: The workshed of 6 m x 4.5 m with thatch roofs and locally available materials like bamboo, wood, etc. may be constructed. 

6. Polyhouse: The polyhouse of 9 m x 4 m dimension with 90 cm, brick wall, 3.6 m tall rhombus netting with expanded metal and polythene roof supported by local materials like bamboo, wood and planks, may be constructed. 

7. Store-cum-office: A store-cum-office of 6.0 m x 4.5 m constructed with locally available materials may serve the purpose.

While packing plants the container is neither over-packed nor loose enough allowing the contents to move about. All space should be filled up by some packing materials like straw, dried grass, etc. For long distance destinations, the ball of earth should be soaked in water and covered with a thick layer of wet moss. Only plants having a well-developed root system should be selected for such destinations. 

Marketing of plants and planting materials is the most crucial and important part of the nursery business. The production of high quality true to the type and attractive planting materials is absolutely necessary. They must be free from pests and diseases and vigorously growing.

(a) 1. Mother Plants: Area fixed for mother plants is an important part for developing a nursery. The mother plants must be true to the type and true to the variety. 

2. Pot Nursery: Are where pots are kept and sored. 

3. Poly bag nursery: The propagated plants are planted in nursery beds for better growth or hardening the plants. In general, this type of nursery bed is prepared under partial shade 

4. Ball Nursery including beds: Ball Nursery including beds of 100 m x 55 m dimension with smaller seed beds. 

5. Workshed: The workshed of 6 m x 4.5 m with thatch roofs and locally available materials like bamboo, wood, etc. may be constructed. 

6. Polyhouse: The polyhouse of 9 m x 4 m dimension with 90 cm, brick wall, 3.6 m tall rhombus netting with expanded metal and polythene roof supported by local materials like bamboo, wood and planks, may be constructed. 

7. Store-cum-office: A store-cum-office of 6.0 m x 4.5 m constructed with locally available materials may serve the purpose. 

(b) While packing plants the container is neither over-packed nor loose enough allowing the contents to move about. All space should be filled up by some packing materials like straw, dried grass, etc. For long distance destinations, the ball of earth should be soaked in water and covered with a thick layer of wet moss. Only plants having a welldeveloped root system should be selected for such destinations. 

Marketing of plants and planting materials is the most crucial and important part of the nursery business. The production of high quality true to the type and attractive planting materials is absolutely necessary. They must be free from pests and diseases and vigorously growing. 

1973 was Plant Nursery Registration Act was enforced in India.

(a) Agro climatic requirement: In India, button mushrooms are grown seasonally and in environment controlled cropping houses. White button mushroom requires 20-28 ⁰C for vegetative growth (spawn run) and 12-18 ⁰C for reproductive growth; relative humidity of 80-90% and enough ventilation during cropping. Seasonally, it is grown during the winter months in the northwest plains of India and for 8-10 months in a year on the hills. However, with the advent of modern cultivation technology it is now possible to cultivate this mushroom anywhere in India. 

(b) Varieties / Strains: The strains which are mostly cultivated in India are S-11, TM-79 , Horst H₃, Ooty 1 and Ooty (BM) 2. 

(c) Casing: The compost beds after complete spawn run should be covered with a layer of soil (casing) about 3-4cm. thick to induce fruiting. The casing material should have high porosity, water holding capacity and pH 7-7.5. Mixtures like garden loam soil and sand (4:1); decomposed cowdung and loam soil (1:1) and spent compost (2-3 years old); sand and lime are commonly used as casing. The casing soil before application should be either pasteurized (at 66-70 ⁰C for 7-8 hours), treated with formaldehyde (2%) or steam sterilized. The treatment needs to be done at least 15 days before the material is used for casing. After casing is done the temperature of the room is again maintained at 23-28 ⁰C and relative humidity of 85-90% for another 8-10 days. 

(d) Harvesting: It is done at button stage and caps measuring 2.5 to 4 cm. across are ideal for the purpose. The first crop appears about three weeks after casing. Mushrooms need to be harvested by light twisting without disturbing the casing soil. Once the harvesting is complete, the gaps in the beds should be filled with fresh sterilized casing material and then watered. About 10-14 kg. fresh mushrooms per 100 kg. fresh compost can be obtained in two months crop. 

Important pest and disease: The insect pests mostly observed are nematodes and mites. Many diseases like Dry Bubble (brown spot), Wet Bubble (White Mould), Cobweb, Green Mould, False truffle (Truffle disease), Olive green mould, and Bacterial blotch affect mushroom cultivation. Adopt appropriate and timely control measures against pests & diseases to avoid failure of crop.

Solan, Himachal Pradesh.

(a) Agro climatic requirement: In India, button mushrooms are grown seasonally and in environment controlled cropping houses. White button mushroom requires 20-28 ⁰C for vegetative growth (spawn run) and 12-18 ⁰C for reproductive growth; relative humidity of 80-90% and enough ventilation during cropping. Seasonally, it is grown during the winter months in the northwest plains of India and for 8-10 months in a year on the hills. However, with the advent of modern cultivation technology it is now possible to cultivate this mushroom anywhere in India. 

(b) Varieties / Strains: The strains which are mostly cultivated in India are S-11, TM-79 , Horst H3, Ooty 1 and Ooty (BM) 2. 

(c) Casing: The compost beds after complete spawn run should be covered with a layer of soil (casing) about 3-4 cm. thick to induce fruiting. The casing material should have high porosity, water holding capacity and pH 7-7.5. Mixtures like garden loam soil and sand (4:1); decomposed cowdung and loam soil (1:1) and spent compost (2-3 years old); sand and lime are commonly used as casing. The casing soil before application should be either pasteurized (at 66-70 0C for 7-8 hours), treated with formaldehyde (2%) or steam sterilized. The treatment needs to be done at least 15 days before the material is used for casing. After casing is done the temperature of the room is again maintained at 23-28 ⁰C and relative humidity of 85-90% for another 8-10 days. 

(d) Harvesting: It is done at button stage and caps measuring 2.5 to 4 cm. across are ideal for the purpose. The first crop appears about three weeks after casing. Mushrooms need to be harvested by light twisting without disturbing the casing soil. Once the harvesting is complete, the gaps in the beds should be filled with fresh sterilized casing material and then watered. About 10-14 kg. fresh mushrooms per 100 kg. fresh compost can be obtained in two months crop. 

(e) Important pest and disease: The insect pests mostly observed are nematodes and mites. Many diseases like Dry Bubble (brown spot), Wet Bubble (White Mould), Cobweb, Green Mould, False truffle (Truffle disease), Olive green mould, and Bacterial blotch affect mushroom cultivation. Adopt appropriate and timely control measures against pests & diseases to avoid failure of crop.

City dwellers are curious about the farmers life and environment so they visit the rural areas to see the rural life, local customs and culture.

Green Revolution. 

(i) Technical inputs resulted in the green revolution in sixties and seventies of the twentieth century. 

(ii) High yielding and early maturing variety of seeds have been used. 

(iii) Instead of bio-fertilizers, chemical fertilizers are used. 

(iv) Flooding of fields are replaced by drip irrigation and the use of sprinklers. 

White Revolution. 

(i) The Dairy Development led to the white revolution or “Operation Flood”. 

(ii) The dairy co-operation in the rural areas helped in rural development.

(iii) The National Milk Grid achieved Operation Flood. 

(iv) Cross breed from foreign and native cattle have been developed.

The following are the five characteristics of commercial farming in India.

• The main characteristic of commercial farming is the use of high doses of modern inputs, like HYV seeds, chemical fertilisers, insecticides and pesticides, in order to obtain higher productivity. 
• The degree of commercialisation of agriculture varies from one region to another, for example rice is a commercial crop in Punjab and Haryana but in Odisha it is a subsistence crop. 
• Plantation is also a type of commercial farming where a single crop is grown on a large area. 
• Plantations cover large areas using capital intensive inputs with the help of migrant labourers. 
• In India tea, coffee, rubber, sugar cane and banana are important plantation crops. 

The silk is obtained from the cocoons of silkworm which is mainly fed in the mulberry leaves. The process of rearing silk is known as sericulture.

Haryana and Uttar Pradesh are the two major cotton producing states of North India.

Geographical conditions required for the cultivation of cotton:

(i) It grows well in drier parts of the black cotton soil of the Deccan plateau.

(ii) It requires high temperature.

(iii) It requires light rainfall or irrigation.

(iv) It requires 21 frost-free days and bright sunshine for its growth.

The farming activity is very much different from the old traditional way to the modern way of farming. There are very much changes in the methods of cultivation. The factors which have been very influential in the changes in the method of cultivation are: 

• Physical environment 

The physical environment is being changed every day in the world. There is a number of reasons for the change in the physical environment but we can quote one major change that is climatic change. The climate has been changed in most of the parts of the world and it is getting unfavourable for the world. Even the icy polar region started melting because of the heat. This contributes to the majorly towards the change in the method of cultivation. 

• Technological factor 

Another factor which influences the method of cultivation is technology. When there is a technological advancement in any sector then it will be adopted because of the increase in productivity and time. For example, the traditional way of ploughing the farming land was with bullocks but it has eventually changed towards the tractor which saves labour and time. Even for the increment in productivity the crops are being modified nowadays. 

• Socio-cultural aspect 

The method of practicing agriculture differs from different socio-cultural groups. It can be seen majorly in India where there are plenty of different socio-cultural groups. This method of difference will be according to the climatic features of the areas and crops which they are cultivating.

• Importance: Rubber is an important industrial raw material.
• Geographical conditions: It is an equitable crop, which is grown in tropical and subtropical areas. It requires moist and humid climate with temperature above 25°C and rainfall above 200 cm. 
• Two rubber-producing states: It is mainly grown in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Garo hills of Meghalaya.

Haryana and Uttar Pradesh are the two major cotton producing states of North India.

Geographical conditions required for the cultivation of cotton:

(i) It grows well in drier parts of the black cotton soil of the Deccan plateau.

(ii) It requires high temperature.

(iii) It requires light rainfall or irrigation.

(iv) It requires 21 frost-free days and bright sunshine for its growth.

Geographical conditions required for the growth of sugarcane in India:

(i) It is a tropical as well as sub-tropical crop so it requires a hot and humid climate with a temperature of 24^oC to 27^oC.

(ii) It requires an annual rainfall between 75 to 100 cms.

(iii) It can be grown on a variety of soils.

The major sugarcane-producing states are Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Bihar, Punjab and Haryana.

Export of spices production is approx  10%.

Black Pepper, chillies, ginger, turmeric, garlic & cardamon etc.

“Black Pepper” is the King of spices.

• Bohea or Chinese Variety : It grows at an elevation of more than 1500 meters.
• Assamica : It can be grown at higher elevation about 2400 meters.

Well irrigation, canal irrigation, drip & sprinkler irrigation, tank irrigation etc. are various methods of irrigation. Wells & canals have been used for irrigation since ancient times.

Well irrigation:-

• In this type of irrigation, a well is dug in the ground from which ground water is taken out for irrigation,
• The area required for digging wells is less,
• It is a cheap, dependable & popular method of irrigation in India.

Canal irrigation:-

• In this type of irrigation, dams are constructed on rivers & water of the river is stored in the reservoir,
• The stored water is then supplied to fields with the help of canals,
• Canal irrigation requires vast area for construction of dam as well as constructing network of canals,
• Canal irrigation is dependable but costly method of irrigation.

• Rearing of silkworm in order to obtain silk is sericulture.
• Leaves of the mulberry trees are the main food for these silk worms.
• Once planted the mulberry trees survive for a minimum period of 15 years.
• Silk thread is obtained from the cocoon of the silk. These threads are very fine & strong. They are used to weave silk cloth.

• Beekeeping is an important occupation with respect to agriculture.
• It is undertaken to obtain honey & wax. In order to collect honey, bees hover around the plants that bear flowers.
• This promotes the process of pollination.
• As a result, the trees bear large number of fruits & the crop yields increase.

• Farm ponds are dug out for the purpose of pisciculture. Water is stored in such ponds.
• Fish seeds are released in the ponds. For this seeds of fresh water species are used.
• In order to achieve the best growth of fish, scientific methods are employed.

geographical and cultural diversity and technological differences in different regions

The following points explain the importance of marketing systems in countries like India:

• Agriculture in India is scattered over vast areas.
• All farmers are not organized.
• Most of the farmers are economically weak & cannot market their production on their own.
• As farm produce is perishable, there has to be a proper arrangement for its sale.

highly specialized type of farming of the modern era

(i) Market gardening has developed as a result of urbanization and the ready markets available in urban centres.

(ii) Farmers cultivate vegetables and other items in the vicinity of urban centres to cater to the demands of city dwellers.

(iii) Market gardening is dependent on good transport network.

(iv) The quality and price of the product is determined by rapid transport. Hence, market gardening is also known as ‘truck farming’.

(i) The nutrient requirements of the crops is fulfilled by soil & therefore replenishment of used up nutrients is necessary.

(ii) Nutrients are also used abundantly to increase the yield. Organic fertilizers are prepared for this purpose.

(iii) The litter should be decomposed in the ground. Grass like resbania or jute are also buried in the soil for making manures Cowdung & compost manures are used. Vermicompost is obtained from organic waste.

(iv) When farming is done using all the vestal matter mixed in the soil it is called organic farming.

(v) The crop obtained from organic farming is high in quality.

(i) Market gardening is a type of cultivation developed mainly as a result of urbanization & ready markets available in urban centres.

(ii) Farmers cultivate vegetables & other items in the vicinity1 of urban centres to cater to the demands of city dwellers.

(iii) The landholding is small. Use of irrigation, organic & chemical fertilizers, low investment, use of manpower, demand of markets, use of science & technology are the characteristics of market gardening.

(iv) It is dependent on good transport network. The quality & price of the product is determined by rapid transport. Hence this type of farming is also called truck farming.

(i) Greenhouse farming is a highly specialized type of farming of the modem era.

(ii) For erecting a greenhouse galvanized iron pipes and plastic sheets are used. It can have total control on natural factors like climate, heat, atmospheric moisture as well as soil moisture.

(iii) Its main aim is to control pest attack by controlling water, light & temperature.

(iv) Green house farming facilitates getting maximum product from land. It assists in getting maximum economic benefit

(e) Greenhouses are used on large scale for growing flowers like lily & gerbera to igive maximum returns.