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An ecosystem comprises physical environment. This system is an interdependent and inter linked with plants and animals living therein. Ecosystems have evolved over a period to thousands of years. Humans have changed and adapted the ecosystem to their requirements. For example 

(i) We have selected our crops from a biodeverse environment, i.e., from the reserve of edible plants. 

(ii) We have identified and nurtured many herbal plants. 

(iii) The animals have been selected from large stock provided by nature and milch animal. 

(iv) Cattle also provide us draught power, transportations, meet eggs etc. 

(v) Fish provide nutritive foods. 

(vi) Insects help in pollination of crops and fruit trees. Some insects also exerts biological control on harmful insects.

(i) The expansion of wheat agriculture and overgrazing of the Prairies were responsible for Dust Bowl tragedy. 

(ii) These dust storms had a great impact on the economic and social life of the people. 

(iii) These dust storms had a great impact on the economic and social life of the people. 

(iv) The black blizzards were responsible for natural disaster in which people were blinded, cattle were suffocated to death, and machinery was damaged beyond repair. 

(v) It was a natural as well as man-made disaster because farmer themselves were responsible for the tragedy. 

(vi) The farmers had recklessly uprooted all vegetation, and tractor had turned the soil over and broken the sod into dust.

While the National Assembly was busy at Versailles drafting a constitution, the rest of France was seething with turmoil. A severe winter had meant a bad harvest, the price of bread rose. Often bakers exploited the situation and hoarded supplies. After spending hours in long queues at the bakery, crowds of angry women stormed into the shops. At the same time, the King ordered troops to move into Paris. On 14 July, the agitated crowd stormed and destroyed Bastille.

(i) Amateurs were the rich cricket players who played the game of cricket for pleasure whereas professionals were poor people who played the game for living.

(ii) Amateurs were called Gentlemen while professionals as Players.

(a) Parasitism 

(b) Mutualism 

(c) Commensalism 

(d) Brood parasitism.

(a) We cannot blame the public entirely. 

(b) We have to educate them. 

(c) Even throwing a candy on the road could cost an animal its life. 

(d) We need to work together against it.

(a) I have been infuriated by people’s lack of etiquette. 

(b) Freedom of speech cannot be taken away from one. 

(c) Yet one cannot keep on speaking all the time. 

(d) One should know one’s limits.

(a) Children get their front incisors between the ages of six and eight. 

(b) The gap may go away on its own when children reach 11 or 12. 

(c) The canines may push the front teeth together and close the gap. 

(d) Canines are meant for grasping and tearing food.

(a) Change is the basic truth of existence. 

(b) Everything is destined to change. 

(c) The entire cosmos is changing every moment. 

(d) Tagore shows the path of taking pride in the love of God.

Buffer stock is the stock of food grains, particularly wheat and rice, which the government procures through the Food Corporation of India (FCI). The Food Corporation of India purchases these cereals (what and rice) directly from the farmers of those states where they are in surplus. The price of these commodities is fixed much before the actual sowing season of the crops. This price is known as the Minimum Support Price which is announced to give incentive to the farmers for raising the production of food crops. The food grains thus purchased by the FCI are kept in big granaries. 

This is called a buffer stock. 

Why is this Buffer Stock created by the Government ? Now a question arises as to why this buffer stock is created by the government ? Some of the main reasons for the same are the following : 

(i) The first region for this is that to revolve the problem of shortage of food arising due to adverse weather conditions like drought or too much of rains. 

(ii) This is done to face the shortage of food in any part of the country which si affected by any calamity such as tsunamis, earthquakes, cyclone, storms or famine etc. 

(iii) This stock is also used to help the poor strata of the society at a price lower than the market price. 

(iv) This stock helps a lot in distributing food grains in different areas.

Fundamental Rights are those rights which are very essential for the development, happiness and welfare of the people as such all the Fundamental, Rights are very significant. The Indian Constitution has given the following six rights to its citizens. 

(i) Right to Equality. This right is very significant. In India, the Right of Equality is guaranteed to every citizen irrespective of his caste, creed, colour, or sex. This right to equality is very essential in our society, ridden by social and economic inequalities of all kinds. 

(ii) Right to Freedom. Every Indian citizen has the right to freedom of speed, association, movement and residence. 

(iii) Cultural and Educational Rights. In India every community has been given educational and cultural rights to preserve its culture. This is very necessary in a society like ours which has so many diversities. 

(iv) Right to Religious Freedom. Since India is a secular state, every citizen is at full liberty to profess any religion of his own choice. This is quite necessary in a country with so many religions. 

(v) Right against Exploitation. The Constitution puts a firm end to such exploitation as bonded labour, beggary, traffic in women and children, underpayment and employment of children below 14. 

(vi) Right to Constitutional Remedies. This implies that if any of the Fundamental Rights is encroached upon by the Government, the citizens can move any court. This is a right to secure other rights. Had this right not been there, the other rights would be have been quite meaningless.

(i) Responsible government Democratic government is a responsible government. The representatives elected by the people on the basis of universal adult franchise remain responsible to the people and in case they do not remain responsible before the people, the people can change them during the next elections. 

(ii) Possibility of good laws: In democratic government the representatives have direct relation which the people, therefore, they properly understand their problems and interests. They properly represent the interest of the people in assemblies and parliament and always try to get the good laws passed. 

(iii) Political education : The greatest merit of democracy is its educative value. Participation in elections and other political activities, make the people intelligent and politically conscious. They become enlightened citizens. 

(iv) Based on liberty and fraternity : In democracy, the rights and the liberty of the people are well safeguarded. People ware given freedom to express their views without any fear. They can criticise the wrong policies of the government. 

(v) Respect of the principle of equality : In democracy, all are equal in the eyes of law and no discrimination ins done on the basis of birth, race, caste, colour, sex, religion etc. All citizens get equal opportunities to participate in the affairs of the state. 

(vi) Government based on the will of the people : Democracy is based on the will of the people and it functions according to their consent. The Government cannot ignore the interest of the people.

(i) They had been stereotyped as killers of Christ and usurers. 

(ii) Hitler’s hatred of Jews was based on pseudo scientific theories of race, which held that conversion was no solution to the Jewish problem. It could be solved only through their total elimination.

A nominal democracy, as we normally use the term, refers to a system of governance which is run by the people’s elected representatives. An ideal democracy is a broader concept. 

An ideal democracy is a system in which every citizen must be able to play equal role in decision making. For this one does not need just an equal right to vote. Every citizen needs to have equal information, basic education, equal resources and a lot of commitment. There may not be any country in the world which passes this test of democracy. Yet an understanding of democracy as an ideal reminds us of why we value democracy.

Disguised unemployment : 

(i) It is a type of unemployment under which people appear to be employed by actually they are not. 

(ii) It is mostly found in agriculture. 

(iii) It is mainly found in rural areas. 

Seasonal unemployment : 

(i) It is a type of unemployment under which works are employed only for a particular season. 

(ii) It is mostly found in agro based industry. 

(iii) It is found both in rural as well as urban areas.

Education has vital role to play in human capital formation or in human development. 

(i) It helps a man to make all round development. 

(ii) It enables him to become a skilled worker and to get a higher pay than any illiterate worker. 

(iii) Education enables a man to be away from bad habits like drinking, gambling etc. which ruin his physical as well as mental health. 

(iv) Education is essential because it enables a man to follow the welfare family norms and not to enlarge his family and to lead the life of an animal. 

(v) Education helps a man to acquire good habits and to be a good citizen of his country. 

(vi) Educated parents are found to invest more on the education of their children. They are also conscious of proper nutrition and hygiene. 

(vii)Education opens new horizon for a child, provides new aspiration and develops values of a life in a far better way.

(i) In a democracy, rulers elected by the people take and the main decisions and there is none above them to direct or guide. 

(ii) In a democracy, elections are held regularly on the basis of universal adult franchise. These elections offer a fair opportunity to the people to change their present rulers. 

(iii) In a democracy, all the people, without any distinction of caste, creed, colour or ser, are given this choice and opportunity on an equal basis. 

(iv) In a democracy, the exercise of their choice of electing their rulers leads to a government limited by the rulers of the Constitution and citizen’s rights.

Before arrival of the colonial rulers, the Massailand spread over a vast area from north Kenya to the steppes to northern Tanzania. This gradually shrank due to the following reasons. 

(i) The colonial powers were hungry for colonial possessions in Africa. Once they reached Africa, they began to cut it down in different colonies. Maasailand was cut into half with an international boundary between British Kenya and German Tanganyika. 

(ii) The best grazing lands were gradually taken over for white settlement. Maasai were pushed into a small area in south Kenya and north Tanzania. 

(iii) The colonial governments promoted cultivation. Local peasant communities began to take control over the pastoral land. Pastoral lands further fell. 

(iv) Large areas of land were also turned into game reserves. Very often these reserves were in areas that had traditionally been regular grazing grounds for Maasais.

(i) Literacy rate

(ii) Health

(iii) Life expectancy

(iv) Skill

It is the supreme law making body of India law making body of India. It has two houses.

(i) Lok Sabha (ii) Rajya Saha

For elections the entire country is divided into fixed electoral areas with a body of registered voters. These areas are called constituencies.

It is electronic voting machine which is used to record votes. The machine shows the names of the candidate and the symbols.

(i) Cabinet Ministers

(ii) Ministers of State, some of whom are given independent charge

(iii) Deputy minister.

(i) FCI purchases wheat and rice from the farmers in states where there is surplus production.

(ii) It also builds buffer stock.

There are many origins of social differences:

(i) Social difference means difference in a set of people due to difference in their race, religion, language or culture. But these differences are more than an accident of nature.
A person does not choose his community where he would be born. He just happens to be born in a particular community. People are tall or short, dark or fair, male or female, more by accident.and not by their own choice.

(ii) However, some choices can be made by us. People choose to follow or not to follow a particular religion. They can choose their field of study and the career path, games and cultural activities.

(iii) Social differences are also created by economic inequalities existing in the society, e.g. rich and poor persons from the same family often do not keep close relation with each other for they feel they are very different.

(iv) Most social differences are based on the accident of birth. For example, people may be tall, strong, weak, girl or boy.

We need food security today, more than ever before, because of the reasons detailed below:

(i) Food and shelter are basic necessities of life; a democratic form of governance must take care of these needs.

(ii) During natural calamities like drought, earthquake, flood, tsunami, etc total production of food grains decreases. It creates a shortage of food and the prices go up. At the high prices, some people can not afford to buy food. Thus, it can be concluded that food security is essential in India.

(iii) The benefits of our economic progress should enable us to feed all our citizens.

Poverty is a situation in which a person is unable to get minimum bias necessities of life i.e. food, clothing and shelter for this or her substance.

US become international creditor for all international debtor because after World War I US economy increase rapidly and European countries are in debt. US earn also from the verssalies treaty.

(i) The First World War was the first industrial war.

(ii) Britain borrowed large sums of money from US banks as well as from companies to pay off loans.

(iii) US though a party to war was physically unaffected. It witnessed industrial boom and increase in agricultural production.

(iv) The US was in a position to lend to European countries to recover from the shock of war. As a result, US emerged as an international creditor from a debtor.

(v) By end of war US and its citizens owned more overseas assets than foreign governments and citizens owned in the US.

The linguistic states were created with the aim of settling people, who speak the same language, to live in the same state. These states were created.

• Many old states had vanished and many new states had been created.
• Areas, boundaries and names of the states had been changed.
• In 1947, the boundaries of several old states of India were changed in order to create new- states.
• This was done to ensure that people who spoke the same language lived in the same state.

Universal adult franchise implies that all adult members should have an equal right to vote in an election. There should be no discrimination on the basis of sex, caste, religion, race, or any other factor. This is what political equality demands.

The farmers associated with the Bharatiya Kisan Union (BKU) were active in the prosperous states of the country. They grew cash crops for the market unlike most of the Indian farmers engaged in agriculture for subsistence.

During Nehru era, some political parties and groups in India believed that India should be more friendly with the block led by the US because that block claimed to be pre-democracy.

• The US and China. 

• India and China, because both of them have been considered as rising economic powers in the world. 

• India, because China has been seen as a contributor to Pakistan’s nuclear programme.

(i) There were 192.member states in the UN by 2006. 

(ii) The UK, US, China, Russia and France are the permanent members.

(iii) Because they were most powerful immediately after the Second World War and constituted the victors in the war.

• Cartoon comments on the changing scenario due to globalisation. 

• It refers to earlier conditions of developing countries who were starving due to less growth in their economy. 

• Globalisation opened doors for new entrants from developing nations and resulted into brain drain.

The logo of ASEAN flag symbolises that the ten stalks of paddy represent the ten South-East Asian Countries and bound together in friendship and solidarity. The circle represents the Unity of ASEAN.

The global economy relied on oil for much of 20th century as a portable and indispensable fuel. The immense wealth related to petroleum which generated political struggles to control it. That’s why it is said that the history of petroleum is also the history of war and struggles.

• The defeat of official candidate during Presidential Elections in 1969.

• Congress (O) i.e. Organisation led by syndicate known as old Congress, Congress (R) i.e. requisitionists led by Indira Gandhi known as new Congress. 

• Indira Gandhi projected the split as an ideological divide between socialists and conservatives, between pro-rich and pro-poor.

1. • France • Russia 

• The UK 

• The US 

• China 

2. • Cyprus 1964 

• Lebanon 1978 

• Israel 1974 

• Sudan 2005 

• East Timor 2006

(a) The growth of population increased the demand of food grains in Britain. The landed aristocracy pressurised the government to restrict the import of corn into the country. These laws came to be known as the Corn Laws.

(b) The promulgation of the Corn Laws further pushed up the prices of food grains. The industrialists and urban dwellers were unhappy with the Corn Laws which resulted in the government abolishing the laws.

(c) After the abolition of the Corn Laws, imported food flooded the British markets. British agriculture was not able to compete with imports. This resulted in the abandonment of cultivation in many agricultural fields of Britain. Many farmers migrated to urban centers in search of employment opportunities.

Five reasons for the depletion of forest resources are

1. Overpopulation leading to higher demand of forest products.

2. Construction of dams leading to depletion of forests.

3. Substantial forests in the tribal belts of north-eastern states have been degraded by shifting cultivation (Jhumming) or slash and burn agriculture.

4. Large scale developmental projects like Narmada Sagar Project of Madhya Pradesh which would inundate 40,000 hectares of forests.

5. Mining is another important factor, mainly the Buxa Tiger Reserve in West Bengal is seriously threatened by dolomite mining. It has disturbed the natural habitat of many species and migration route of animals, especially the great Indian Elephant.

(i) Social groups which are most vulnerable to poverty are scheduled caste and scheduled tribe households.

(ii) Among the economic groups, the most vulnerable groups are the rural agricultural labour households and the urban casual labour households.

(i) The city life symbolized freedom from the collective social values which people were compelled to follow in their villages.

(ii) There were numerous caste and community rules in the rural set-up which were banished when people moved to cities.

(iii) People became more free and they carried new ways of living

(iv) The public transport system and multistoreyed housing loosened traditional regulations and people learned to live in multiethnic and multicultural environment brought from different placed by migrants to the city.

(v) The city symbolized self made people who came here to pursue their dreams.

(vi) City culture, bought a wave of individualism and were supposed to be quite organised than the rural areas, so people who migrated found it attractive.

(i) Bombay became the capital city of the Bombay presidency in 1819, hence more people began to settle in Bombay.

(ii) Growth of trade in cotton and opium led large communities of traders, bankers, artisans and shopkeepers to settle in Bombay.

(iii) In 1854, cotton mills were established in Bombay. Most of the workers came from outside.

(iv) Large number of people came to work at the seaport and the railways which encouraged migration. 

(v) Famines in dry regions brought more people to Bombay. Bombay attracted many people to work in films too.

(i) Initially, the indentured laborers found it difficult to adjust to the harsh living conditions of the plantation. But very soon they discovered new ways of survival.

(ii) They developed new forms of individual and collective self-expression, blended art, cultural forms, old and new

(iii) In trinidad, the culturalMuharram procession was transformed into a riotous carnival called 'Hosay' in which workers of all races and religions joined

(iv) The protest religion 'Rastafarianism' is also said to reflect social and cultural links with Indian migrates to the Caribbean.

(v) Chutney music popular in Trinidad and Guyana is another creative expression of the post indenture experience.

The Great Depression was a result of many factors:

(i) Conditions created by war: There was an immense industrial expansion due to the increased demand of goods supplied to the army, during the period of the First World War. After the war, the demand for these goods suddenly dropped and so, there was no demand in many industries. There was also a large fall in the agricultural prices due to reduced demand.

(ii) Over production in agriculture Agricultural over production was another major factor responsible for the depression. This was made worse by falling agricultural .prices. As prices slumped and agricultural incomes declined, the farmers tried to increase the production and bring a larger volume of produce to the market to maintain their overall income. This worsened the situation by pushing down the prices of farm produce further.

(iii) Shortage of loans In the mid-1920s, many countries financed their investments through loans from the USA. While it was often very easy to raise loans in the USA during the boom period, lenders in the USA panicked at the first sign of trouble. Countries that depend crucially on US loans, now faced an acute crisis.

(iv) Multiple effect With the fall in prices and the prospect of a depression i.e. banks in the USA slashed domestic lending and some stopped bank loans, thousands of banks went bankrupt and were forced to close down. Factories closed, leading to unemployment, which further aggravated the crises. The US banking system collapsed.

(v) Large-scale unemployment Farm could not sell their harvests, businesses collapsed. As a result, large scale unemployment occurred.

Conservation of resources are important because we can use it in future and if we conserve our resources our new generation can use it in future and it is the best gift for our new generation.

Resources are essential for all kinds of developmental activities. But indiscriminate use of resources and over use of resources may lead to socio-economic and environmental problems. To overcome these problems, resource conservation at various levels is important.
E.g., Gandhiji rightly said, There is enough for everybody’s need and not for anybody’s greed.

The use of religion in politics, where one religion is shown as superior to other religions is called communal politics. 

Here, one religious group is against the other religious group and the demands of one religious group are against the demands of the other religious group. Communal politics is based on the idea that religion is the only basis of forming a community. It believes that followers of one religion belong to the same community. Their interests, ideas and opinions are the same. It also follows that people belonging to different religions cannot be a part of the same community. Their ideas and demands are bound to be different. In an extreme case of communalism, it follows that people from different religions are not equal citizens and cannot live together within one nation, which leads to partition of that country.

(i) The most common expression of communalism lies in our everyday beliefs. These routines involve belief in the superiority of one’s religion above other religions.

  (ii) A communal wind often leads to a quest for political dominance of one’s own religious community; it can take a form of a desire to create a separate political unit.

 (iii) Political mobilization based on religion is another form of communalism. This involves the use of sacred symbols, religious leaders, emotional appeal to bring the followers of one religion together in the political arena.

 (iv) Sometimes, communalism takes its most ugly form of violence, riots, and massacres. India and Pakistan suffered some of the worst communal riots at the time of partition.