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In ancient times, Egypt was divided into about forty small states. There was constant struggle between these states. The credit goes to king Minij, to integrate these states in 3400 B.C. into a single empire. Based on political events. 

Egypt is divided into three periods :

1. Epoch of pyramid or ancient kingdom (3400 B.C. to 2160 B.C.) 

2. Feudal era or medieval kingdom (from 2160 B.C. to 1580 B.C.). 

3. The era of empires or the new state (1580 B.C. to 650 B.C.).

Rakhaldas Banerjee

The life of ancient Egyptians had the most prominent place of religion in it. In their religious life, polytheism, the humanization of the deities, the temples and the idols, the religious rituals of the priests, offering worship and sacrifice, the occult, the chants, the superstitions, the worship of natural powers, the worship of trees and animals, the soul being immortal, the primacy of faith, rebirth and feelings of empowerment and duty were some rituals that were prevalent.

The main gods of Egyptians were Aman-ray (sun), Osiris (son of sun), Sin (Moon), Osrim (Nile River). These gods were symbols of natural powers. Egyptians believed that the soul resides in the body after death. So, they used to put a special type of spice on the dead body. By this the dead body did not rot for hundreds of years. Huge tombs were created for the protection of dead bodies, which were called pyramids. The dead bodies kept in pyramids were called ‘Mummies’.

Ancient Egyptian civilization was developed in the valley of Nile river. Egypt is an African country. There is very low rainfall here. In the rainy season, the Nile fills its shores with plenty of water and collects fertile soil along with it to supply the other requirements of minerals, grass and greenery in Egypt. If this region did not have the Nile flowing through it, this area would also be a desert.

Hammurabi was sixth ruler of Amorite dynasty of ancient Babylonia. He made a law code for his people, which is the oldest law-code available at this time. He carved it in 3600 rows on a stone column eight feet high, which was installed at temple of Markluk in Babylonia. The penal theory of Hammurabi’s was ‘As you sow’, so shall you reap and blood for blood revenge. The language of this code is semetic. There are 285 sections in this law-code, which are divided into scientific concepts, divided into individual assets, trade and commerce, family, crime and chapters of labour. The greatest feature of this code is that its laws are completely secular.

The status of women in Babylonian society was respectful. They had great freedom. A contract letter was written before marriage. Decision was taken after considering the opinion of women in relation to divorce, remarriage, etc. In the condition of divorce, women had the right to receive alimony. Women were also allowed to do business and join government service. Simultaneously, control over women was also adequate. They had to live under men. Men could have more than one woman as their wives.

Babylonian society was divided into three classes. They were 

(i) Higher class 

(ii) Middle class 

(iii) Lower class.

1. The members of this class were known as ‘Avilam’. High Officals, landlords and the merchant class were included in this class. This class was full of comfort. 

2. Middle Class: The members of this class were known as ‘Kmaskenam’ in the society of Babylonia. In this class traders, craftsmen, intellectuals, state employees, farmers and workers were included. The members of this class were independent like higher class members. 

3. Lower Class: The members of this class were known as ‘Ardu’. They were cosidered to be the property of their master. They had to wear a special type of costume. There was a system to sell and buy them as slaves.

Social Life : The society of Indus Saraswati civilization was divided into several classes. There were the professional people including goldsmiths, water-diviners, merchants, crafstmen, who made jewellery. The people of Garhari area may have been-prosperous and there would be common people in the lower city. There was a specific class of priests and officials and royalty. Family was the main unit of society. In this civilization the families lived in separate units. Women had a respectable place in society and family. The ‘Parda system’ was not prevalent and women used to wear ornaments. These people used to wear cotton clothes. They had knowledge of weapons. Among the means of entertainment music, dances, hunting and gambling were prominent People of this civilization ate wheat and rice, milk, meat, fruits, etc. in their diet.

The sixth ruler of the Amorite dynasty was Hammurabi. He ruled for 42 years (2123- 2081 B.C.). He was a great warrior and creator of Babylonian empire. He was not only a winner but worthy ruler and law maker too. His versatility is seen from his code of law. He was a hardworking, disciplined, justice loving ruler. Most of his time was spent for the good of the people. He paid special attention towards the development of trade and commerce and industry.

In the economic life of the Indus-Saraswati civilization agriculture, animal husbandry, trade and commerce had a prominent place.

Kalibanga provides the evidence of farming in the field. It seems that the people of Indus-Saraswati civilization used to cultivate land to grow crops. These people used to cultivate wheat, rice, sesame seeds, fruits, peas, mustard seeds cotton, etc. Cows, bulls, buffaloes, sheep were the main animals to be reared. There was an importance of cow species. The residents here were skilled in making pottery and tools of copper and bronze, as well as in the art of making clay pottery and mats. Making beads was a developed industry. There is a complete workshop for making beads in the Chanhudaro and Lothal and evidence of oyster industry from Balakst.

Internal and foreign trade in the Indus-Saraswati civilization was in a very developed stage. There is clear evidence of the business relationship with the people of Mesopotamia. In this civilization, the commodity exchange system for trade was in vogue.

Religions life : People of Indus-Saraswati civilization were primarily worshippers of natural powers. They used to worship the earth, sky, Neem, water, sun, fire etc. as a divine power. Based on the analysis of statues and tablets, it is evident that here superstitions, such as sacrifice and magic also prevailed. Sacrificial altars which were found from Lothal, Bamawali and Rakhigarhi, show that there should be prevalence of yagya and fire worship there. Incense was lit for worship of idols. Along with the worship of mother goddess and shiva, there is evidence of animal worship, tree worship and Snake worship. The dead body was either burnt or buried.

Indus-Sarawati civilization was the oldest civilization of the world. Based on the remains of excavation, this civilization has been called the urban civilization. The excavation here has found extensive roads, pucca bricks houses, a huge bath for combine bathing, well planned houses, streets and community wells, etc. On the west side of each town there is a part of the ‘fort’ or ‘Ghori’ on a platform and on the lower back towards east of the city, the city portion is located which was inhabited by the general population. The fortified part was probably the residence of priests or rulers. This civilization is the best symbol of urban cleanliness. Such drainage system can not be found elsewhere in the world. Based on the facts, it can be said that the urban life here was very advanced.

The teachings of Laotse are the following : 

1. The education of materialism increases the greed and superstition in the people. Physical knowledge is not.a virtue. Humans should be naturalists. Nature should be the ultimate respect, and simple living should be adopted. 

2. Social and economic freedom is possible only by promoting rural cottage industries. 

3. There should be minimum government control for the advancement of the state. Ego increases the lust for power which leads to the downfall of the ruler. 

4. Friendly behaviour ought to be adopted even with the enemy. In exchange for loss, instead of hardness, there should be behaviour of goodness rather than cruelty and evil. 

5. Fighting for the king is unnecessary. Innocent people are killed in the war. The life of peace is the proper path. 6. Peace is the Tao of development.

Al Idrisi, Ptolemy, Anaximander, Hecataeus of Miletus, and Herodotus were world-famous geographers and cartographers.

The story of the Rise of Nazism in Germany is not limited to a few specific events or causes. It is the result of the working of an elaborate and frightening system which operated at different levels. Nevertheless, some of the main causes of the Rise and Popularity of Nazism in Germany can be mentioned as follows:
Treaty of Versailles: Germany was forced to sign a peace treaty at Versailles after her defeat in the First World War. This treaty was so harsh and humiliating for the Germans which they could not accept by heart and ultimately led to the rise of Hitler’s Nazism in Germany. Because of the various terms of this treaty Germany had to sacrifice much of its territories, colonies, natural resources, military power and also had to pay huge war compensation. This created a feeling of sheer dissatisfaction among the people of Germany who visualized Hitler of the Nazi Party as the symbol of revival of the lost glories of Germany.
Economic Crises: The Nazis did not have much popularity until the early 1930s. The German economy was the worst hit by the by the world-wide economic crisis of 1929 - 1933. The country was passing through a situation of hyperinflation. It was during this period of Great Depression when Nazism became a mass movement.
Political Turmoil: There were many political parties in Germany such as Nationalists, Royalists, Communists, Social Democrats etc. although none of them was enjoying majority in the democratic government. The Party strife was at its peak. This along with various other crises within the country continuously weakened the Republic government and ultimately giving an opportunity to the Nazis to capture the power.
Germany had no faith in Democracy: After the defeat of Germany at the end of the First World War, ‘Democracy’ was totally new for the Germans. They had no faith in Parliamentary institutions. Democracy was indeed a young and fragile idea, which could not survive the various problems which were prevailing in Germany at that time. People preferred prestige and glory to liberty and freedom. They supported Hitler whole-heartedly as he got the ability to fulfill their dreams.
Failure of Weimar Republic: After the defeat in the First World War and Versailles Treaty there was devastation, starvation, unemployment, total despair among the youth and complete confusion everywhere in Germany. Weimar Republic failed to solve the economic crises of the country. This provided a golden opportunity for the Nazis to launch a campaign in its favour.
Hitler’s Personality: Hitler was a powerful speaker, an able organizer, resourceful person and a man of actions. He could mobilize the mass in his favour by his passionate words. He promised to build a strong nation, undo the injustice of the Versailles Treaty and restore the dignity of the German people. In fact, his personality and actions contributed maximum to the popularity of Nazism in Germany.

Adolph Hitler became the Chancellor of Germany in 1933. He passed many laws to gain total control over his people. The Fire Decree was passed on 28th February, 1933.
1. The Decree abolished freedom of speech, press and assembly
2. Concentration Camps were set up and the Communist were sent there. The Enabling Act was passed on 3rd March, 1933
3. All other political parties were banned.
4. Nazi Party took complete control the economy, media, army and judiciary.
5. Hitler became a Dictator
Special Surveillance and Security forces were formed to control the people. The Police, the Storm Troopers, the Gestapo, the SS, and the Security Service were given extraordinary powers to control and order the society in ways the Nazis wanted. The police forces acquired powers to rule with impunity and soon the Nazi State established total control over its people.

After the defeat in the First World War Germany had to sign a harsh and humiliating treaty with the Allies. The treaty multiplied the problems an already defeated Germany many times and also a political uncertainty in the country. As a result, Hitler rose to the power. He set up the Nazi party and succeeded in capturing the power and establishing the dictatorship of the Nazi party in Germany. The dictatorial rule of the Nazi party under the leadership of Hitler is termed as Nazism. Nazi ideology was synonymous with Hitler’s worldview. The chief features of Nazi thinking were as under:
1. The state is above all. All powers should be vested in the State. People exist for the State, not the State for the people.
2. It was in favour of ending all types of parliamentary institutions and glorified the rule of a great leader.
3. It was in favour of crushing all types of party formations and opposition.
4. It was in favour of rooting out liberalism, socialism and communism.
5. It preached hatred for the Jews whom they thought, were responsible for the economic misery of the Germans.
6. The Nazi party considered Germany superior to all other nations and wanted to have her influence all over the world.
7. It wanted to mobilize the private and State efforts for her development of agriculture and industries etc.
8. It wanted to denounce the disgracing Treaty of Versailles.
9. It extolled war and glorified the use of force.                                                                                            10. It aimed at increasing the German Empire and acquiring all the colonies snatched away from her.
11. It dreamt of creating a Racial State of ‘Pure Germans’ or ‘Nordic Aryans’ by eliminating all others who were undesirable to them.

In Nazi Germany women were considered to be different from men. The Nazis did not believe in equal rights for men and women. They felt that equal rights would destroy the society. Young women were told to become good mothers, look after the home and rear pure — blooded Aryan children. Women who deviated from the prescribed code of conduct were severely punished. In direct contrast to the women in Nazi Germany, women in France asserted themselves during the French revolution. Numerous women's clubs were formed. Women demanded equal rights as men. The government introduced laws to improve the lives of women. Education was made compulsory for girls. Unlike Nazi women who were confined to their homes, the French women were given freedom to work and run businesses. The French women also won the right to vote which was denied to their Nazi counterparts.

Soon after assuming power in Germany in 1933 Hitler launched a vicious propaganda against the Jews which proved quite successful in creating hatred for the Jews. Some of the reasons for the success of the propaganda against the Jews were the following:

(a) Hitler had already created a niche for himself in the minds of German people who began to consider him as their Messiah. They used to believe Hitler just by his words. Thus, the personality cult created by Hitler did all the wonder and the Nazi propaganda against the Jews proved successful.
(b) The traditional Christian hatred for the Jews, because they were accused to have killed Christ, was fully exploited by the Nazis in order to make the Germans pre-judicial against Jews.
(c) The Nazis used the language and media effectively with great care. The racial theory put forward by the Nazis that the Jews belonged to a lower race and as such were undesirable.
(d) The Nazis injected hatred against the Jews even in the minds of the children from the very beginning during the days of their schooling. The teachers who were Jews were dismissed and Jews children were thrown out of the schools. Such methods and new ideological training to the new generation of children went a long way in making the Nazi’s propaganda quite effective in creating hatred for the Jews.
(e) Propaganda films were made to create hatred for the Jews. Orthodox Jews were stereotyped and marked. For example, one such film was ‘The Eternal Jew’.

Aristophanes.

a) less treaded road

Correct option is C. Simile

(1) By these words in the line, the poet does not regret for the other road he has taken, but he uses the word ‘sigh’ to convey deep thoughts.

(2) Two roads were equally fair, but the poet chose ‘the one less travelled by. That has made ‘all the difference’ to the poet. This choice conveys the venturesome spirit of the poet.

(3) The Figure of Speech in the line ‘somewhere ages and ages hence’ is Repetition. The word ‘ages’ gets repeated in the line.

This line reveals the adventurous nature of the poet because when he had to take a decision of making a choice, he did not take the beaten track. He chooses the path which is not frequented. He decides to leave the first road for some other day knowing full well that he will not get a chance to go back to it.

I observed the following points from the experiment with concave mirrors, to form images at different places, 

they are : 

1.  As the object distance increases, the image distance decreases. 
2.  As the object distance increases, the size of image decreases.

June, July and Aug.

सही उत्तर है ई.स. प्रथम

सही उत्तर है तोलकाप्पियम्

सही उत्तर है शुद्रक

सही उत्तर है तमिल

(A) Village Revenue Officer

Answer is (A) Mandals

(A) District Collector

(D) District Collector

(A) District Collector

Answer is (C) 13

C)13 is the correct answer

Answer is (B) WALTA

Answer is (B) 2002

(B) Amaravathi

(C) 19 – 4- 2002

Answer is (A) WALTA

(C) 3.00 PM to 4.30 PM

(D) Manisha Nagle

Answer is (B) 2 only

(C) Corporation

Trees and animals are part of our natural environment which have to be conserved.

(A) Forest Department

Special Economic Zones are created to set up their own enterprises by foreign investors.

1. Special Economic Zones (SEZs) provide an internationally competetive hassle free environment for exports.

2. Units in SEZs manufacture goods and provide range of services. 

3. SEZs are located in Nanguneri, Ennore, Hosur and Perambalur. 

4. IT and ITES, SEZ named TIDEL – IT and TIDEL IIT and Bio – Pharmaceuticals SEZ are located in Chennai and Coimbatore SEZ called the TIDEL park IV is located in the city. 

5. Special Economic Zone means the specified area within the territory of the state. 

6. There are 36 special economics zone are operational in Tamil Nadu which tops in highest number of SEZ.

7. It helps in the economic and Industrial development of the state. 

8. Helps to create employment opportunity and to earn foreign exchange.

The correct answer is C) Clayey and loamy.