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Literary source can be divided into two categories

1. religious literature

2. secular literature

Pre-history’ means ‘before history’. This period refers to the era when man had not developed the art of writing. Hence, there are no written records of this period. The life of people during this period is constructed through tools, weapons, bones, etc.

Example of religious literature — the Mahabharata. 

Example of secular literature — Abhigyan Shakuntalam.

Two sources of history are literary sources and archaeological sources. Literary sources include secular literature and religious literature. Writings related to a religion are called religious literature, for example, the Jatakas, the Ramayana. Secular literature is not related to a religion. It includes poems, plays, accounts by travelers, for example, the Indika of Megasthenes.

(d) Translation of Mahabharata – Moropant

Correct Answer is Najib Khan

• Developments of Maratha miniature paintings can be seen through illustrations on the manuscripts such as pothis, pattachitra, and patrikas. For example, the wooden stands of pothis have pictures of Ganapati, RiddhiSiddhi, Gopalkrishna in dark red, green, and yellow colours.
• Miniature paintings include human portraits and themes like ragamalas, talamala, processions, etc. 
• Murals are found on the fagade of the Wadas, as well on the walls of reception areas (Diwankhana) and bedrooms. 
• The 18th-century murals have survived till today at places like Naik-Nimbalkar Wada at Vathar, Rangamahal at Chandwad, Mayureshwar Mandir at Morgaon, Shiva Temple of Pandeshwar, and Matha at Benawadi. 
• The main theme of murals is mythological stories. They include scenes from Ramayana, Mahabharata, and Puranas. 
• The subjects of contemporary social life were also reflected in the paintings. The royal court, royal meetings, processions were also included in them.

• Shahajiraje Bhosale was a prominent Sardar in the Nizamshahi kingdom. After the end of Nizamshahi’s rule, he accepted the rank of a Mansabdar in the Adilshahi court. 
• Shahajiraje was valiant, courageous, wise, and well-versed in the science of statehood.
• He had successfully handled many Adilshahi expeditions in Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu. 
• The provinces of Pune, Supe, Shirwal, Indapur, and Chakan were given to Shahajiraje as Jahangir. 
• He personally aspired to establish Swarajya. He is regarded as the visionary of Swarajya. 
• The concept of Swarajya was visualized by Shahajiraje and it was turned into reality by Chh. Shivaji Maharaj. 
• Chh. Shivaji Maharaj laid the foundation of Swarajya from the Mawal region. Several factors like the topography of Maharashtra, valour of the local Mawalas, the administrative and military experience gained by the Maratha sardars while working with Nizamshahi, and Adilshahi and above all these the able leadership of Chh. Shivaji Maharaj could make it possible

• Chh. Shivaji Maharaj built forts, the tradition of which was prevalent in the Deccan for three centuries. 
• The Kasaba temple in Pune and Vitthal temple in Vitthalwadi were reconstructed by Veermata Jijabai.
• During the Peshwa period, the Maratha kingdom regained its prosperity and all forms of art and architecture received patronage. 
• The construction of temples began on a large scale during the later Peshwa. Period. 
• These temples are of three types. Examples of temple architecture of this period are found at Saswad, Mahuli, Jejuri, etc. 
• These are huge in size. The plan of these temples is in star design, the foundation of the temple was multilayered and was named accordingly.
• The shikhara is made in bricks and stucco method. 
• The Kalaram, Goraram, and Sundarnarayan temples at Nasik and Mahadev temple at Trimbakeshwar, Mohiniraj temple at Nevasa is similar to the temples in Malwa and Rajasthan. 
• These temples are constructed in stone. These temples are embellished extensively with sculptures. 
• The third type of temple can be found at Pune, Satara, Wai, etc. 
• It included arches, a wooden hall, and a sanctum sanctorum(gabhara). The Shikhara slopes inwards at the top. 
• The stone ‘Deepamala’ is a remarkable feature of these temples. The stone deepamalas at Jejuri were built by Shahajiraje. 
• The Chhatris (Samadhis) at various places are noteworthy.

The sources of history can be broadly divided into two groups.

1. Archaeological Sources.

2. Literary Sources

(a) Chhatrapati Rajaram Maharaj

1. Gaikwads of Vadodara, Shindes of Gwalior, Bhosales of Tanjavar, Bhosales of Nagpur, Pawars of Dhar, Holkars of Indore.

2. The regions in Maharashtra including Nashik, Pune, Satara, Sangli, Kolhapur, Sindhudurga, Ratnagiri, Raigad; Belgaum, Karwar, Dharwad in Karnataka; some regions of Andhra, Jinji, and Vellore in Tamil Nadu comprised Swarajya.

3. Attock, Peshawar, Multan, Lahore.

Correct option is  (a) Najib Khan

(d) Alauddin Khalji

1. Afzal Khan

2. Rui Leitao Viegas and his son Fernao Viegas

The inception of Swarajya- After joining the Adilshahi court, Shahaji Maharaj entrusted the administration of his Jahagirs at Pune, Shirwal, and Supe region (pargana) to Chh. Shivaji Maharaj. 

Yet the forts located in those Jahagirs and nearby areas were in the custody of Adilshahi court. The one ‘who owns the forts owns the land’ was the ruling of the day. 

Hence, Chh. Shivaji Maharaj began with capturing the forts in the vicinity of his Jahagirs. 

He took over the fort of Torana and laid the foundation of Swarajya. 

Chh. Shivaji Maharaj established the first capital of Swarajya at the fort of Rajgad. 

Javali episode – Chandrarao More proved to be a hindrance in Chh. Shivaji Maharaj’s efforts to create Swarajya. Chh. Shivaji Maharaj successfully took over Javali. After this victory the activities of Chh. Shivaji Maharaj in Konkan was escalated.

Afzal Khan – Realising the danger of the increasing activities of Chh. Shivaji Maharaj, the Bijapur court sent their powerful General Afzal Khan to curb the increasing power of Chh. Shivaji Maharaj. Chh. Shivaji Maharaj had anticipated the intentions of Afzal Khan who had taken up the challenge of killing Chh. Shivaji Maharaj. He met Afzal Khan at Pratapgad. As expected, Afzal khan attempted treachery but Chh. Shivaji Maharaj was well prepared and killed Afzal khan in self-defense. Afzal Khan’s huge army was set on the run and huge booty and weapons were collected eft behind by them. This made Swarajya’s treasury richer.

Siddi Jauhar – After Afzal Khan’s defeat, the Bijapur court sent Siddi Jauhar to attack Swarajya. He seized the fort of Panhala and closed all possibilities of escape for Chh. Shivaji Maharaj. In this difficult situation Shiva Kashid, a loyal servant of Swarajya, disguised himself as Chh. Shivaji Maharaj and made it easy for Chh. Shivaji Maharaj to escape. 

When Siddi came to know the truth, he killed Shiva Kashid. Thus, Shiva Kashid sacrificed his life for the cause of Swarajya. Baji Prabhu took up the task of blocking Siddhi Masud’s path in Ghodkhind and stop him in his chase of Chh. Shivaji Maharaj. Baji Prabhu was successful in doing this. He fell dead only after receiving the news of Chh. Shivaji Maharaj reaching Vishalgad safely.

1.Shiva Kashid 

2. Brij

3. Rohillas

After the death of Rajaram Maharaj (March 1700 C.E.), his wife Maharani Tarabai continued to fight against Aurangzeb. 

Maharani Tarabai led the Swarajya movement under extremely unfavourable conditions. 

She single-handedly took charge of the administration and fought for Swarajya for twenty-five years with the help of her sardars. 

At times, the Marathas had to fight the Mughals on lands beyond the boundaries of Swarajya, but she did not stop them. 

This was an indication that the scenario of the war was changing. The Maratha War of Independence was a tussle between the Mughal ambition of expanding their Empire and the desire for independence cherished by the Marathas.

Finally, the death of Aurangzeb put an end to this fighting. In the beginning, the Mughal rulers adopted an aggressive policy while the Maratha policy remained that of defense. 

But by the second half of the 18th century, this condition changed. With the weakening of Mughal power, the Marathas could extend their rule almost all over India.

At the time of ascending the throne, Aurangzeb was aware of the ambitious plans of Chh. Shivaji Maharaj. 

He sent his maternal uncle Shaistakhan on an expedition against Chh. Shivaji Maharaj. 

Shaistakhan camped in Lai Mahal in Pune. Chh. Shivaji Maharaj who knew Shaistakhan’s intentions manages to enter the Lai Mahal and cut off Shaistakhan’s fingers. 

Shaistakhan had no alternative but to hastily leave Lai Mahal. Chh. Shivaji Maharaj gained more confidence and he attacked Surat, the prosperous economic capital of Aurangzeb, and collected a large booty. 

Enraged by this, Aurangzeb sent his powerful sardars Mirza Raje Jaising and Diler Khan to attack Swarajya. 

They captured many forts in the Swarajya. Chh. Shivaji Maharaj had the wisdom to comprehend the situation and decided to retreat tactically by signing the ‘Treaty of Purandar’. 

According to the treaty, Chh. Shivaji Maharaj had to present himself before Aurangzeb at Agra, along with his son Sambhaji Maharaj.

Aurangzeb acted treacherously and put Chh. Shivaji Maharaj is under house arrest. 

Chh. Shivaji Maharaj very cleverly misled the guards and escaped from Agra.

Soon after returning to Swarajya Chh. Shivaji Maharaj conquered the forts which were held by Aurangzeb.

• Shahaji Raje sent his son Shivajiraje and his wife, Veermata Jijabai from Bengaluru to Pune along with his loyal and capable associates. 
• Veermata Jijabai encouraged Chh. ShivajiMaharajto fulfills the dream of Shahajiraje of establishing Swarajya. 
• She was a visionary and an efficient administrator. 
• She constantly guided her son in the mission of establishing Swarajya and provided him with the excellent education necessary for the king of Swarajya.

Aurangzeb sent his powerful sardars Mirza Raje Jaising and Diler Khan to attack Swarajya. 

They captured many forts in the Swarajya. Mirza Raje Jaising was a powerful and competent military commander. 

He blocked Chh. Shivaji Maharaj from all sides. Lives of Chh. Shivaji Maharaj’s men were endangered. 

Chh. Shivaji Maharaj had the wisdom to comprehend the situation and decided to retreat tactically by signing the ‘Treaty of Purandar’. 

According to the treaty, Chh. Shivaji Maharaj had to present himself before Aurangzeb at Agra, along with his son Sambhaji Maharaj.

(a) Art: 

• The development of Maratha miniature paintings is seen through illustrations on the manuscripts such as pothis, pattachitra, and patrikas. The same style is maintained in the glass paintings as well.
• Illustrated manuscripts of Sanskrit texts such as ‘Bhagvat Gita’, ‘Devi Saptashati’, ‘Bhagvat Purana’ as well as Marathi texts such as ‘Dnyaneshwari’ (Bhavarthadipika), ‘Shivaleelamrut’, ‘Pandavapratap’ etc. are available. 
• The paintings of Dashavatara are included in them. The wooden stands of the pothis have paintings of various deities in dark red, green, and yellow colours.
• The miniature paintings, include human portraits and themes like ragamalas, talamala, processions, etc. 
• Remarkable portraits of Bajirao I, Nanasaheb Peshwa, Pilaji Jadhavrao are available. Murals are found on the facade of the wadas as well as on the walls of reception areas (Diwankhana) and bedrooms. 
• In the temples, the mandapa wall, owri (varanda), shikhara, gabhara (sanctum sanctorum), and chat (ceiling) were also decorated with paintings. Mythological stories form the main theme of these murals. 
• They include scenes from Ramayana and Mahabharata and Puranas. The paintings of Dashavatara and Krishnaleela are found almost everywhere. 
• The subjects of contemporary social life were also popular in the paintings. The royal court, royal meetings, processions were also included in them. 
• Keertan, Bhajana, Powadas (Ballads), Lavani were popular folk songs in Maharashtra.

(b) Architecture:

• Forts – Chh. Shivaji Maharaj gave priority to building forts. The tradition of building forts was prevalent in the Deccan in the last three centuries. This tradition proved to be of advantage to Chh. Shivaji Maharaj.. 
• Temples – The Kasaba temple in Pune and Vitthal temple in Vitthalwadi were reconstructed by Veermata Jijabai. The construction of temples began on a large scale during the later Peshwa period. These temples were of three types. Examples, of the temple architecture of this period, are found at Saswad (‘Vateshwar’ ‘Sangameshwar’), Mahuli (‘Vishweshwar’). 
• Town Planning – Pune, Satara, and Nashik developed into big cities. These cities had well-paved roads, wadas on both sides of the road, and arched gates at intervals.

(c) Literature:

• Marathi literature developed greatly during this period. Sant Tukaram of this period was a poet of the Warkari sect. 
• Samarth Ramdas wrote ‘Dasbodh’ and ‘Manache Shlok’ in Marathi. Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj got the ‘Rajyavyavaharakosha’ prepared which was a compilation of Sanskrit lexicon for Persian terms. 
• Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj was a great writer and Sanskrit scholar. The Sanskrit text ‘Budhabhushan’ was written by him. 
• This text is an overview of ancient texts on the polity. Apart from Sanskrit, he also knew many other languages. 
• He wrote texts in Brij language namely ‘Nayikabhed’, ‘Nakhshikh’ and ‘Satasattak’. Muhammad Qasim Ferishta wrote the history of India in 12 volumes named ‘Gulshane-i-Ibrahimi’. 
• In the 18th century, well-known literary works were composed such as ‘Yatharthdeepika’ by Vaman Pandit, ‘Naladamayanti Swayamvara’ by Raghunath Pandit, Pandavapratapa, Harivijay, Ramavijay by Shridhar Pandit, and the translation of Mahabharata by Moropant. Bakhar literature is important among the historical literature in Marathi. 
• It contains eulogies of the heroes and stories of historic events, battles, lives of great men. Sabhasad Bakhar, Bhausahebanchi Bakhar, Panipatchi Bakhar are some of its examples. 
• Krushna Dayarnav and Shridhar were the main poets during the Peshwa period. Poet Mahipati composed ‘Bhaktivijay’ in this period.

(a) Central administration: 

• Chh. Shivaji Maharaj set up an ideal administrative system for the smooth running of Swarajya’s affairs. 
• The formation of the Ashtapradhan Mandal (council of eight ministers) and its growth took place along with the expansion of the kingdom.
• After the coronation, Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj created special posts of Ashtapradhans. It included ‘Peshwa’, ‘Amatya’, ‘Sachiv’, ‘Mantri’, ‘Senapati, ‘Sumant’, ‘Nyayadhish’ and ‘Panditrao’. 
• Chh. Shivaji Maharaj had a strong intelligence network of his own. Bahirji Naik was the Chief of this network. Before starting on any expedition, Chh. Shivaji Maharaj obtained detailed information from his spies and then planned his expedition.

(b) Provincial administration:

• The Kingdom was divided into two parts for the sake of administration. One of them was the province that was geographically bound together and the other comprised scattered regions in the south.
• Sarsubhedars taking care of provincial administration were known as ‘Deshadhikari’. 
• Sarsubhas in the Swarajya was meant to be the zonal division for the overall administration, while under Islamic rulers a division merely served the purpose of revenue collection.

(c) Village administration: 

• The Subhedars were assisted by ‘Deshmukhs’ and ‘Deshpandes’. 
• The main task of a Deshmukh was to collect the land revenue, develop wasteland into cultivable land and settle new villages. 
• All government officials received salaries in the form of cash instead of a land grant (watan). 
• ‘Village’ was the basic unit of the administrative system. New villages were settled.
• The people were provided with cattle, seed money, money for daily utilities.
• The farmer was given a period of two years, to repay the advance after a good harvest. This system was known as the ‘Batai system’.

After the death of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj was coronated as the King of Swarajya. 

During his reign, a constant conflict continued with the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb. Aurangzeb’s rebellious son, Akbar had established friendly relations with Sambhaji Maharaj. 

Enraged by this Aurangzeb came down to Deccan along with a huge army and able sardars, who were veterans of warfare.

For the next 25 years, he camped in Maharashtra and fought against the Marathas. 

After Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj, Chhatrapati Rajaram Maharaj took over the reins at Raigad. 

Aurangzeb sent Zulfikar Khan to seize the fort of Raigad. 

Chhatrapati Rajaram Maharaj, Maharani Tarabai, Maharani Yesubai (Queen of Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj), and her son Prince Shahu were staying on Raj gad. 

After the death of Rajaram Maharaj (March 1700 C.E.), his wife Maharani Tarabai continued to fight against Aurangzeb. 

Maharani Tarabai led the Swarajya movement under extremely unfavourable conditions. 

She single-handedly took charge of the administration and fought for Swarajya for twenty-five years with the help of her sardars.

• After Balaji Vishwanath, his son, Bajirao I was appointed as the Peshwa. He expanded the Maratha empire up to Malwa, Rajasthan, and Bundelkhand. He defeated the Nizam. 
• After Bajirao I, Balaji Bajirao alias Nanasaheb was appointed as the Peshwa. Madhavrao Peshwa tried to reestablish the Maratha power. 
• The defeat in Panipat was not just a political defeat but also lowered the morale of the Marathas greatly. 
• Madhavrao Peshwa tried to elevate the spirits of Marathas as well as reestablish the Maratha power in the north. 
• The Marathas were successful in overcoming the great defeat at Panipat and create a politically strong position for themselves in the politics of the north.
• Malharrao was the founder of the Holkar State at Indore. He served the Maratha power for a long time.

• The saints created a sense of belonging among people toward their native region, language, literature, and culture. 
• They gave a message of equality to people. Their teachings were based on the principles of humanity. 
• They preached harmonious community life, unity, and love. Their efforts created social awakening. 
• Their teaching helped people to survive situations like foreign invasions, draughts, or other natural calamities. 
• Their devotional songs became a source of great moral support for people. 
• Their work created a sense of selfesteem among the people of Maharashtra 

I don’t think that our villages are similar to that of Delhi, Allahabad, Varanasi, Lucknow, and Patna. They are well developed from the time of Mahajanapadas it self. Because of high fertility lands and transportation facilities these areas developed from that time. Now they became big cities and Delhi being our national capital. So, we can’t compare our villages to the cities mentioned above.

Answer is (A) Bhaga

This sources of history have helped historians to reconstruct the distant past and give a fairly accurate picture of ancient India.

• Chh. Shivaji Maharaj decides to give legitimacy to his earned kingdom. 
• To announce the sovereign and independent status of Swarajya it was necessary to make it official. 
• Realizing this Chh, Shivaji Maharaj decided to get himself coronated. 
• With his coronation as a sovereign king, the provinces under his rule assumed the status of an independent kingdom. 
• He minted new coins after the coronation. He started ‘Rajyabhishek Shaka’ i.e., a new era after the coronation.

On 6th June, 1674, Gagabhatt a learned Pandit crowned Shivaji Maharaj at Raigad.

The yagas performed at the time of Mahajanapadas were Rajasuya and Ashwamedha.

Answer is A) Iron

The rivers made the land very fertile and the Grihapatis could irrigate their lands easily. The rivers were also used for transporting goods and armies. Parts of the Magadha were forested. Elephants were captured from there and trained for fighting in the armies. Wood from the forests was used for building fortresses and palaces and chariots. 

In the southern parts of Magadha, there were iron ore deposits that could be used for making weapons, etc. 

All this enabled Magadha to emerge as a very powerful kingdom. The kingdom extended from the northwest part of India to Odisha. 

Thus Magadha used the natural wealth of the region to build a powerful kingdom.

(B) Only B is correct

Answer is (B) Ganga

Bimbisara and his son Ajatasatru were the early kings of the Magadha empire.

Magadha kingdom was spread on both sides of the river Ganga. The river made the land very fertile and the grihapatis could irrigate their lands easily. The river was also used for transporting goods and armies. Parts of the Magadha were forested. Elephants were captured from there and trained for fighting in the wars. Wood from the forests was used for building fortresses, palaces, and chariots. In the southern parts of Magadha, there were iron ore deposits that could be used for making weapons, etc.

Craft persons have to pay taxes at the time of Mahajanapadas. Sometimes they have to work free of charge for the king for one day of every month. But today if a craft person earns money more than the specified amount by the government they have to pay the tax for the excess amount they earned. There is no chance to work instead of paying tax.

(D) Both A & B are wrong

1. Magadha kingdom was spread on both sides of the river Ganga. The river made the land fertile and the Grihapatis could irrigate the land easily and produce was high.

2. The river was also used for transporting goods and armies. 

3. Elephants were captured from the forests that spread over in the kingdom and trained for fighting in the wars. 

4. In southern parts of Magadha, there were iron ore deposits that were used for making weapons etc.

The Indian public was tyrannized by the bureaucracy. Besides, the tyranny of the feudal, the jagirdars and the rulers were in no way less than the cruelty of the British rule. The heavy taxes at three levels, the lag-bag and the back – breaking forced labour had made the lives of the peasant class miserable.

When the Congress demanded a responsible government in the states of the kings and the nawabs, the national movement took a new turn. The Congress declared to give the Indian states full help in establishing fully responsible government in their states. So, praja mandals were established to give a responsible administration to the people.

Following were the purposes of establishing Praja Mandals: 

1. In the administration, public representative should be included. 

2. Local self government should be fully entrusted to the people. 

3. In the state, freedom of speech, freedom of making an organization and freedom of writing should be given. 

4. There should be no ban on holding a satyagraha. 

5. The imprisoned fighters of freedom and political prisoners should be released without any terms and conditions. 

6. Freedom should be given to unfurl the national flag and to enchant the national anthem.

The praja mandals established in Rajasthan are as follows: 

Marwar Praja Mandal was established in Jodhpur state in 1934. Its purpose was to establish a responsible government under the guardianship of the Maharaja. It was declared illegal, in 1937, and in May 1938, Marwar Public Conncil was established.

The political institutions of Marwar carried out many movements for the establishment of responsible rule in the state in 1932, 1940, 1942 – 44. The chief leader of Marwar Praja Mandal and Marwar Public Council was Jai Narayan Vyas. In Bikaner, for the first time, Magharam Vaidya established the Praja Madal in 1936. But Maharaja Ganga Singh banished Magharam Vaidya for six years to nip the newly – formed Praja Mandal.

Later, Raghuvar Dayal established the Praja Mandal in 1942. Other important members of Praja Mandal were Kumbha Ram Arya and Deen Dayal Acharya. In Udaipur, Praja Mandal was established in 1938 under the presidentship of Balwant Singh Mehta. Its prime Minister was Manikyalal Verma. In Jaipur state, for the first time, in 1931,Praja Mandal came into existence by the efforts of Kapoor Chand Patni.

Later, in 1937, with the inspiration of Jamnalal Bajaj, it was re – organized. Under the presidentship of Jamna Lai Bajaj, the first annual session of Praja Mandal was held at Jaipur. The state of Jaisalmer was the center of autocratic feudalism. In jail, Sagarmal Gopa was subjected to untold tortures and tyranny (1941 – 46), Meethalala Vyas established Jaisalmer State Praja Mandal at Jodhpur in 1945.

In Alwar, Praja Mandal was established by the joint efforts of Hari Narayan Sharma and Kunj Bihari Lai Modi. 

In Bharatpur state, in December 1938, Praja Mandal was established. Its chief leaders were Gopilal Yadav, Thakur Desraj, Master Adityendra and Rajbahadur etc. Bhogilal Pandya established the Praja Mandal in Dungarpur in January, 1944.

In Sirohi State, Gokul Bhai Bhatt established the Praja Mandal in January, 1939. Bundi (1944), Dholpur (1938),Karanli (1939) Praja Mandals were established at these places. The establishment of the Praja Mandal in Rajasthan led to the establishment of responsible integrated government in the state of Rajasthan, merger of the state into one Rajasthan and its ultimate merger in India.

There were six cantonments in Rajasthan at the time of revolt of 1857. 

(1) Nasirabad 

(2) Neemuch 

(3) Deoli 

(4) Beawer 

(5) Erinpura 

(6) Kherwara.

(a) George Patrick Lawrance

(a) Govind Guru

The crops that were grown in the Mahajanapadas were wheat, barley, peas, and lentils. These crops are grown in the same way as those were grown in the ancient days. 

In the time of Mahajanapads, they planted paddy saplings instead of grains. 

Even today the same system was followed by the farmers.

The taxes collected by the Mahajanapadas were : 

1.  1/6th of the total agricultural produce as a tax on crops. 
2.  Craftsmen had to pay taxes in the form of labor. 
3.  Taxes on the sale and purchase of goods and services for trade. 
4.  Taxes on herders in the form of animals or animal products and taxes on hunters and gatherers in the nature of their collection from forests.

During the period of Mahajanapadas, craftsmen played a key role in the development of Mahajanapadas. Availability of iron facilitated craft production also. Blacksmiths made necessary tools for agriculture like ploughshares, sickles, axes, arrows etc., With the use of iron ploughshare productivity improved. Potters made pots for cooking and storing grains. Carpenters made carts and with the help of these carts transportation was made easy. Weavers weaved cloth which was exported to other places and it helped the economy of Mahajanapadas. Potters made special type of pottery known as painted grey ware, which became famous in those days.

In this way craftsmen participated in the development of Mahajanapadas.

Upanishads were a part of the Vedic books. Upanishad means coming and sitting near’ and the books have dialogues between teachers and students. 

These books try to answer questions like: 

‘Where have we come from?’ or 

‘Where do we go after death?’

(a) 28th May, 1857