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Indian Archaeological survey was established in 1861 under the direction of Alexander Cunnigham.

According to Vishnu Purana, the country lying to the North of Indian Ocean and to the South of the Tundras is called Bharatvarsha. The biggest part of the country spreads within the tropical climatic region.

To the North, there is the Himalayan reigon which includes Balakh, Badkhaķa, Jammu and Kashmir, Kanga, Tehri, Garhwal, Kumaun, Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan and the mountain peaks of Assam and the Himalayan range.

To the west, there is the mountain range of the Hindukush, the white mountain, Turkman and Kirthar mountain ranges extending from the North to the South which separate it from the Western land.

‘Purushartha means the ideals to be followed by man. These ideals have been classified into four parts 

(1) Dharma (Conduct and character) – Dharma includes conduct, duties and requirement of virtues.

(2) Artha (Wealth) – (Wordly properties and other possessions)Wealth which man needs in enjoying the physical and material needs of life.

(3) Kama (Enjoyment of facilities) – The word Kama means re – production of progeny and the consumption of money in enjoying the material and physical things which are provided to man for consumption and as enjoyment.

(4) Moksha (Freedom from the cycle of life and death) – Moksha means to be free from the wordly life. The first three purusharthas are connected with the wordly life of man and the fourth purusharth is related to divinity. In Indian culture, the philosophy of life is related to the whole life. The complete view of life includes all the departments of world life and the life hereafter or divinity.

The archaeological sources are the most certain and dependable source to know about ancient India. Archaeology means the study of the remains excavated from a place and to find out the activities performed by human beings in the period. 

Archaeological sources can be divided in the following ways :

(1) Archaeological remains obtained through excavation : (Clay-pots, tools and instruments). The knowledge about the Sindhu and Saraswati civilization is based on the remains found during excavation.

(2) The records: On account of being dated and written (documentation), they are very dependable source. We get the order of dates and the achievements of a particular ruler from these records.

(3) Coins and currency: Coins, currency and stamps are very significant to tell us about the ancient history of India. We get from them the knowledge about names of the rulers, dates, their faces, dynastic traditions religion, their glorious deeds, daily life, their likes and dislikes etc.

(4) Epitomes and buildings : The archaeological sources of hisotry include all the remains of on-ground and under-ground structures likes stupas, chaityas, ashrams, mathas, temples, palaces, forts and tombs. From all such remains, we know about the art, architecture, culture and political life of that period.

(5) Idols, sculpture and other arts : During excavation, variey of idols and the designs of terracota has been found, which tell us about the social, religious and cultural life of those days. Besides this, drawing and painting is the natural means of expression of human beings. For example, different aspects of life have been expressed through the medium of rock-art.

1. Bhaskaracharya, 

2. Baudhayana.

The Vedas are the oldest books of the religious literature. We get full knowledge about Aryan civilization and culture from the Vedas. The Vedas plentiful storehouse of wisdom. The Vedas are four in number – the Rigveda, the Samveda, the Yajurveda and the Atharvaveda.

The Rigveda is the oledest of the four Vedas: The Rigveda has 10 mandals and 1028 suktas. Every Veda has been divided into four parts – Samhita, Brahmin, Aranyaka, and Upanishad. The Rigveda is written in verses. The Rigveda is a collection of prayers. The Samveda provides information about the hymns, prayer and other religious songs sung by the Aryans.

The Atharvaveda is written by Atharva rishi. It contains miscellaneous subjects. It includes knowledge of Brahma, religion, social prestige, use of medicine, suppression of the enemy, remedy of disease and enchantment etc. After this, the literature based on Yajna and rituals came to be known as Brahmin literature.

The books written by the rishis came to known as Aryanakas books deal with the subject of philosophy, while the upnishads tell us about deeper subjects and the moral values of life. Vedanga literature came into existence to understand the Vedic literature. The Vedanga literature has six parts – shiksha, kalpa, yakarana, nirukta, chhanda, jyotisha.

Ayurveda, Dhanurveda, Gandharva veda and Shilp veda are the four upvedas (subvedas) which provide knowledge about medicine, music, military science architecture, etc. Thus it is clear that the Vedas are the very rich storehouse of knowledge and they provide us the complete picture of ancient India.

These sources can be divided into two parts : 

1. Literary sources 

2. Archaeology and Archives

The historians use various means to know the past human activities. These means are called sources, evidences and proofs. Historians use the following literary sources to get the knowledge of ancient Indian history .

(a) Religious literature Brahmin literature Buddhist literaure and Jain literature.

(b) Literature besides religion Historical books Buddhist literature Pure literary books Jain literature Regional literature Foreigners narratives 

(c) Dynastie’s narratives

(a) Religious literature – The literature related to religion is called the religious literature such as Brahmin literature, Buddhist literaure and Jain literature. 

Brahmin literature – This describes different types of yajnas and the rules pertaining to them. 

Buddhist literature – Buddhist literature has played an imporant role in the formation of ancient history of India.

The oldest scripture are the Tripitaks – Sutta pitak, Abhidhamma pitak and Vinay pitak. They contain the principles and conduct of Buddhism. The other important contribution of the Buddhisth literature are the Jatak Granthas.

Jain literature – The most important Jain scripture is Aagam. It includes 11 Angas, 12 Upangas, 10 Prakrana, 6 Cheda sutras, 1 Nandi sutra, 1 Anuyogadvara, and 4 Mula sutras. It was composed in the sixth century BC by various Jain religious groups and individuals.

(b) Non religious literature – This covers the literature written on subjects other than the religion. It includes subjects as history, semi – history, purely literary books, plays, stories, and poetry.

Historical books – Some of the important history books which provide us knowledge about ancient India are—Kalhan’s Rajataragini, Chanakya’s (Kautilya) Arthshastra, Banabhatta’s Harshcharita, Vakpati’s Gaudvaho etc.

Pure literary books – Panini’s Ashtadhyayai, Patanjali’s Mahabhashya, Kalidas Malvikagnimitra, Vishakha dutt’s Mudrarakshasha, Shudrak’s Mrichhkatikam etc. are very important from historical point of view.

Regional literature – Regarding the books of regional languages, there is plentiful material in history. It includes Sangam literature (Tamil literature), The Telugu book Krishnadeorai Vijyayam written by Dhurjati.

In Rajasthani language there are – Prithviraj Raso by Chand Bardai, Kanhude Prabandh by Padamnam, Rao Jatriro Chhand by Meethu Sooja, Vansh Bhaskar by Suryamal etc.

Foreigners Narrative Literature based on foreigners, opinion about IndiaChief among the Greek writters are – Tessius, Nerodotus, Niryakus, Aristobulus, Aryna, Skuylax etc. The most important book is INDICA written by Magasthenes. Among the Chinese travellers are – Heiun – Tsang, I – Tsing, Fa – hien etc. Among the Tibetans’ description of India, the two books –

1. Kangyur, and 

2. Tengyur are regarded as the most useful books.

(c) Dynasties’s narratives – In the ancient history of India and in our holy Puranas, Vanshawalis have played an important role in writing the history of that period. We find the records of many historical events in such Vanshawalis.

The Indian culture extended from Afghanistan to the whole of south – east Asia. The present Java, Sumatra, Malaya, Combodia, Siam, Champa, Burma and Sri Lanka etc. were an integral part of cultural India.

The Jain literature is a very important source of Indian history. The most important Jain scripture is the Aagam. It includes 11 Angas, 12 Upangas, 10 Prakranas, 6 Cheda Sutras, 1 Nandi sutra, 1 Anuyogadvara and 4 Mula sutras. It was composed in the sixth century BC by various Jain religious groups and individuals. The Jain literature has been written in Prakrit language.

The mang Jain scriptures are The Katha Kosh, Parishist Parvan, Bhadra Bahucharita, Kalp sutra, Bhagvati Sutra etc. in which we can find the historical information. In Bhadra Bahucharita, we get a lot of knowledge about the last days of Chandra Gupta Maurya, besides the life events of Muni Bhadrabahu.

The Indian sages described three types of debts .

1. Debt to Parents – By maintaining the continuity of human race through production of progeny, we can clear the debt to parents. 

2. Debt to Rishis – We can clear the debt to rishis by enriching and developing the knowledge and the traditions which we have inherited from the rishis. 

3. Debt to gods – Our duties to the gods and goddesses can be cleared by performing the yajna and by prayers and worship to them. These yajnas re – unite man with the original creation. Salvation is possible only when one is free from these three debts.

There were four varanas – the Brahmin, the Kshatriya, the Vaishya and the Shudra. 

The objective of the varna – system was to make people useful to the society on the basis of their virtues, nature and deeds; while the purpose of the Ashram system was the co-ordination of physical, social, divine and moral values of life.

Indifference Curve refers to the graphical representation of various alternatives combinations of bundles of 2 goods among which the consumer is indifferent.

The three assumptions of indifference curve are :

• Non-satiety
• 2 commodities
• Ordinal Utility

The Law of Diminishing Utility (LDMU) states that as we consume more and more units of a commodity, the utility derived from each successive unit goes on decreasing.

MRS stands for Marginal Rate of Substitution.

The 4 assumptions of Law of Diminishing Utility are:

• Rational Consumer Perfect Knowledge
• Fixed Income and prices
• Independent utilities

Supply is elastic because supply of a good is more than one.

When the percentage change in its price is greater than the percentage change in its supply.

Elasticity of supply refers to change in quantity supplied due to change in price.

When percentage change in quantity supplied is greater than percentage change in price of the commodity, Supply is said to be elastic.

Stock refers to the total quantity of a commodity available with the seller at any given time. Whereas, Supply refers to that quantity of a commodity which a seller is willing to sell at different prices during a given period of time.

Supply refers to the quantity of a commodity that a firm is willing and able to offer for sale at a given price during a given period of time.

Supply curve slopes upwards, showing a positive relationship between price and quantity supplied of a commodity.

Change in supply means change in factors other than its own price.

When there is a change in a factor affecting supply other than own price of the good.

Shift in supply curve takes place when change in supply is caused due to the change in ail other factors other than the price of a good.

Given:

% Change in Price = 20

% Change in Supply = Q₁ – Q = 240-200= 40

40/200 x 100 = 20%

e_s = % Change in Supply/% Change in Price

= 20/20

e_s = 1

Good B has higher elasticity as compared to A. It is because with change in price by one per cent, percentage change in demand for B is 4% while in case of A it is only 3 per cent.

Complementary goods are those goods which complete the demand for each other. When the price of good A increases, its demand will decrease, which will lead to a decrease in its complementary good B because both the goods are used jointly. Similarly, if the price of good A decreases, its demand will increase, which will lead to increase in its complementary good B.

Tea and Coffee

Inferior Goods are those goods, which are inversely related to consumer income or which have negative effect on income. When income of a consumer increases, the demand of inferior goods decreases, like coarse grain (Bajra), etc.

(a) Related goods are of two types, Substitute goods and Complementary goods.

(i) In case of substitute goods: When price of one commodity falls, demand for other commodity declines, e.g., decrease in the price of coffee will decrease the demand for tea.

(ii) In case of complementary goods: When price of one commodity falls, demand for other commodity rises, e.g., decrease in the price of petrol will increase the demand for car.

(b) Change in the income of buyers also influences his demand for different goods. The demand for normal goods like full cream milk tends to increase with increase in income and vice-versa. On the other hand, the demand for inferior goods like coarse grain tends to decrease with increase in income and vice- versa.

Normal goods ----> Rice, Wheat

Inferior goods ----> Coarse cloth, coarse grain

When with the rise in income of a consumer, the consumer buys less quantity of a good, then that good is an inferior good for that consumer. Suppose when the consumer’s income rises, he buys less of coarse cloth and purchases fine cloth. Then for that consumer specifically, a coarse cloth is an inferior good.

The following table shows the differences between them:

Albert declared humorously that he was going to have a real nervous breakdown. It would make it easier for the doctor to certify his illness. The next time Yuri saw Albert; he found that the latter had lost his high spirits. Albert confirmed that he would really have a nervous breakdown which would satisfy any doctor.

(i) We know that the equilibrium price and quantity are achieved at;

Q_d=Q_s,

200-P = 50 + 2P

(-) 3p = (-) 150

Therefore, Equilibrium Price p = 50

And, Equilibrium Quantity q = 200 - 50 = 150 units

(ii) If the price of factor of production has changed, then under the new conditions;

Q_d=Q_s

200-P=80+2P

(-)3p = (-)120

Therefore, Equilibrium Price p = 40

And, Equilibrium Quantity q = 200 - 40 = 160 units

Thus, as the equilibrium price is decreasing the equilibrium quantity is increased.

The history teacher felt amazed as well as annoyed at Albert’s stubbornness. It was because Albert challenged all the established norms of attaining knowledge. Modem students do not agree with the history teacher’s view. Education is not a mere acquisition of certain facts and their verbatim reproduction.

Holozoic mode of nutrition means the feeding of solid and liquid food by animals. Butterflies live on nectar from flowers. Therefore to suck the nectar from flowers, they have a long tube-like structure called proboscis.

1. It is art insectivorous plant. 

2. The scientist Johannes Burman identified this plant in Sri Lanka in 1737. Hence, the plant is named after him. 

3. It grows close to the ground. 

4. Its leaves are attractively pink or red in colour with hairs at the margin. 

5. Droplets of a sticky substance found at the tips of the hairs attract insects. 

6. It grows in a place where deficiency of nitrogen in the soil. To get nitrogen for its growth, it eats insects.

1. Two or more than two different types of plant live together to fulfill their needs of nutrition, protection, support etc. with each other’s help. This type of nutrition is called symbiotic nutrition.

2. e.g. Lichen is an example of symbiosis between algae and fungi.

1. Chemosynthesis is the biological conversion of one or more carbon-containing molecules and nutrients into organic matter. 

2. It uses the oxidation of inorganic compounds or methane as a source of energy rather than sunlight. 

3. Sulphur bacteria and nitrosomonas produce their food by chemosynthesis.

Leaves of the loranthus plant carries out photosynthesis.

i. Carbohydrates

ii. proteins

iii. leguminous

iv. azotobacter

v. algae, fungi

Role of nutrients and effects of their deficiency on plants:

Electronic configuration = 2, 8, 7 

∴ Atomic number = 17 

Nature of oxide = Acidic oxide

(a)Law of conservation of momentum

(b)Newton’s second law of motion

(c) Newton’s third law of motion

(d)Newton’s first law of motion

The plants that grow on the body of other plants to obtain food are called as parasitic plants.

There are two types of parasitic plants:

• Holoparasites: e.g. Rafflesiaceae
• Hemiparasites: e.g. Loranthaceae

Group 2 = Metals 

Nature of oxide = Basic oxide

There are two types of nutrients.

1. Nutrients like carbohydrates, proteins and fats are required in large quantity. These are macro-nutrients. 

2. Minerals and vitamins are required in very small quantity. They are called micronutrients.