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The aim of the fountain experiment is to prove that HCI is highly soluble in water.

Ppt of lead hydro oxide is obtained.

Pb(NO₃)₂ + 2 Na OH→ Pb(OH)₂+ 2 NaNO₃

ppt. of lead hydroxide is observed

(i) 3Cu + 8HNO₃ → 3CU(NO₃)₂ + 4H₂O + 2NO↑ 

(ii) 2NH₃ + 3CuO → 3Cu + 3H₂O + N₂↑

(iii) CH₃I + 2[H] → CH₄ + HI

(iv) S + 2H₂SO₄ → 3SO₂+ 2H₂O 

(v) 2NH₄Cl + Ca(OH)₂ → CaCl₂ + 2H₂O + 2NH₃

When dilute hydrochloric acid is added to lead nitrate and the mixture is heated, insoluble white precipitate of lead chloride is formed. 

Pb(NO₃)₂ + 2HCl -----> 2HNO₃ + PbCl₂ (white ppt)

White ppt. of PbCl₂ is formed.

1. Release reddish brown gas NO₂ (Nitrogen-di-oxide) which turns freshly prepared Ferrous Sulphate solution brown. The residue left is black copper oxide. 

2. Ethyl alcohol on dehydration forms ethene which when passed through bromine water makes it colourless. 

3. The yellow lead acetate paper turns greyish black with hydrogen sulphide gas due to formation of lead (II) Sulphide. 

4. Ammonia bums with a green flame. 

5. Nothing is left at anode as copper atoms form copper ions and migrate towards cathode.

(i) Fruity smell due to formation of ester is there. 

(ii) Rotten egg smell due to formation of hydrogen sulphide.

(iii) Dirty green precipitates of ferrous hydroxide are formed.

(iv) Yellowish green flame is produced when ammonia bums in air. 

(v) Hydrated copper sulphate which is blue in colour change to anhydrous copper sulphate which is white in

Anhydrous CaCl₂ on exposure to atmosphere form solution.

Since CaCl₂ is deliquescent substance. So it absorbs sufficient water from air to allow it do dissolve, when exposed to air for same time.

In ionic solids, the constituent particles are positive and negative ions. These ions are held together by strong electrostatic forces of attraction so they have high melting point.

BaCl₂ + Na₂ SO₄ → BaSO₄ + 2 NaCl

                                  White ppt

Using alkaline potassium permanganate solution :

White ppt. of barium sulphate is formed solution turns turbid.

Using barium chloride solution :

The following are the safety measures needed in a nuclear power plant :

(i)  The nuclear reactor must be shielded with lead and steel walls so as to stop radiations from escaping out to the environment.

(ii)  It should be housed in an airtight building of strong concrete structure which can withstand earthquakes, fires and explosion.

(iii)  There must be a back-up cooling system for the reactor core, so that in case of failure of one system, the other cooling system could take its place and the core is saved from overheating and melting.

(i) This scene is set in a court of justice. Portia was there, dressed as a learned doctor of laws, in the guise of Balthazar, to appear on behalf of Antonio and defend him against the lapse of the bond that he had signed with Shylock. 

(ii) Bellario stated in his letter to the Duke that he could not be present at the court due to his illness. He sent a learned a doctor of law, Balthazar, in his stead. He was confident of the ability of Balthazar to prove his capability in such a crucial case between Shylock and Antonio. 

(iii) Bellario’s letter stated that he had thoroughly discussed the case with the learned doctor of laws, Balthazar, who was fully acquainted with the case in question. Balthazar was a young man with mature judgement and rich experience to handle the case. 

(iv) The ‘difference’, that is dispute between Shylock the Jew and Antonio that the Duke was unable to resolve was the clause in the bond according to which Shylock could have his pound of flesh from Antonio’s heart if the latter failed to fulfil the terms of the bond. 

(v) Portia succeeded in saving Antonio by interpreting the bond in the letter, and not the spirit, of the law, as Shylock himself insisted on it. She warned Shylock that the bond did not allow him to shed even a single drop of blood while taking the pound of flesh. Thus defeating Shylock with his own weapon, she could save Antonio from the clutches of Shylock. Portia’s shrewd interpretation of law really saved Antonio. 

The Mousetrap : Agatha Christie

Education is a powerful instrument for bringing about social changes in the following ways : 

It helps in changing the attitude of the people: 

It motivates people to favour modem ways of life and to fight against prejudice and superstition prevalent in the society. 

It helps to fight social drawbacks: It helps people to realize that only through education the downtrodden position can become better and social evils like gambling, drinking, untouchability, dowry and begging can be eliminated from the society. 

It helps the people to adapt to the social changes and adjust with them: Social changes occur due to changing lifestyles, changing cultural values, etc. Education helps people in accepting such changes and adjusting accordingly. 

It helps in creating social awareness: Education imparts knowledge of right and wrong, and makes people aware of their rights and duties as citizens, consumers, and as social beings. 

It helps in improving ideology of people: It is through education that the thoughts and opinions of people can be refined and improved to widen their perspectives and accept different social changes.

Free goods in economic terms refer to those resources which are available in abundance hence, people don’t have to pay anything for them. For example, air, water.

A political organisation is any organisation that involves itself in the political process. 

The role that it plays in bringing about a change in the society is described as follows : 

De-centralisation : The formation of the Panchayati Raj system in India gave the people at the grassroot level a scope to voice their issues as well as find solutions for the same. This system enabled the better redressal of issues at the grassroot level. 

Reservation of Seats : The 73rd Amendment Act brought in reservation of seats in the Panchayat for women (2-3rd) STs and SCs. Thus allowing the oppressed sections of the society for representation in the political scenario and enabled their issues and greviances to be brought under the limelight. 

Creation of Bal Panchayats : One initiative under the Panchayati Raj system was the creation of the Bal Panchayats. These enabled the issues of the children to be voiced, addressed and tackled by the children themselves. This system promoted the growth of leadership qualities amongst the children. 

Empowerment of Women : Various – schemes have been launched at various levels to enhance the overall status of women. Schemes ranging from educational benefits to provision of cooking gas and pre and post pregnancy aids and health check-up. All such changes have brought in betterment in the condition of women. 

Social Recognition : Voting rights have been granted to the third genders and also many of them can now opt for education and build a more respectful life for themselves. 

Degree of kinship refers to the degree of closeness one has to different relatives. Normally, consanguenial kins are more closely related to each other than affinal kins. 

There are mainly three basic degrees into which the kins can be classified : 

Primary kins: Some relatives are near, close and direct. They are known as primary kin. According to Dubey, they are eight in number, viz., father-son, husband-wife, mother-daughter, father-daughter, mother-son, younger-elder sisters, younger-elder brothers and sister-brother. They can be classified more minutely into primary consanguineous kin or primary affinal kin. 

For example: Ego’s father is Ego’s primary consanguineous kin, whereas Ego’s wife is Ego s primary affinal kin. 

Secondary kins: They are primary kin of primary kin. In other words, they are related through primary kin. They are not our primary kin but are the primary kin of our primary kin, hence our secondary kin.

For example, father’s brother (chacha), sister’s husband (bahnoi) are secondary kin. The father is my primary kin and his brother is the primary kin of father. Therefore, father’s brother is my secondary kin, the primary kin of primary kin. Similarly, sister is may primary kin but her husband is my secondary kin. 

Tertiary kins: They are the secondary kin of our primary kin or primary kin of our secondary kin .Thus the wife of brother-in- law(sala) called sarhaj in Hindi is tertiary kin because brother-in- law is my secondary kin and his wife is the primary kin of brother-in¬law. Similarly the brother-in-law of my brother is my tertiary kin because the brother is my primary kin and his brother-in-law is the secondary kin of my brother.

Gender bias refers to the discrimination on the basis of the gender of a person whether male or female. Given the fact that ours is a partriachal society, there is a general tendency for the society to be skewed towards men, however gender bias or preference towards one gender over another can impact both the genders. 

Gender bias and women : 

(a) Crimes against women : Since our society is dominated by men this gives rise to various types of crimes being meted out towards the women like rape, domestic violence, sexual harassment, eve-teasing, acid attack and so on. 

(b) Work and Women : Many women face sexual harassment at their workplace. Also glass-ceiling effect is an other consequence of gender bias wherein women hardly rise the official hierarchy to occupy high posts. Women are often not paid equal remuneration for equal work in comparison to their male counterparts. 

(c) Family and Women : The girl child is neglected due to preference for male child. Issues like dowry, child marriage and female infanticide and female foeticide result due to such attitudes. Women are denied educational rights, expected to not voice their opinions and stay within the domains private sphere. Also many a times nutrition is also not adequately given to them. Property inheritance right was denied to women for a long time. 

Gender bias and man : 

(d) Children : Men are not given enough rights in matters of abortion of their biological child stating it to be the sole decision of the mothers. 

(e) Lack of Laws : Most of the legal system is skewed towards women making men often fall prey to false charges of rape or domestic violence. There are not enough laws to protect men against crimes like sexual assault, harassment or rape. 

(f) High expectations from society : The men often feel burdened by the high expectations that the society has from them. Some men who are not able to fulfill the parameters of masculinity set by the society often feel distressed and can suffer from various diseases. Even today men are expected to be the main bread winners in the family.

Following are the features of caste in India: 

Segmented division of the society which divides the society into different segments. The status of the person is determined not by wealth, but by the traditional importance of the caste which an individual has been bom into. 

The restrictions on feeding and social intercourse which help in preserving the ceremonial purity of the superior castes. 

Social and religious hierarchy, according to which the Brahmins are the most privileged group and the shudras are subjected to many kinds of social disabilities. 

The rule of Endogamy forbids the individuals to marry outside their caste or the subcaste. 

Restrictions on choice of occupation that an individual is expected to follow his caste based occupation. Brahmins are to work as priests and impart education and read the religious texts, the Kshatriyas are warriors who are supposed to protect others, the Vaishayas are traders and merchants and the Shudras are meant to carry out the menial jobs.

According to Raymond W. Murray, ‘Social stratification is a horizontal division of society into ‘higher’ and ‘lower’ social units.’ It refers to a process in which individuals and groups are ranked in more and less hierarchy of status. 

Following are the features of social stratification: 

Social stratification is universal : It is present in every society in one or the other form. 

Social stratification is social : It is not biological attributes of the individuals that determine their superiority or inferiority but their social positions. 

Social stratification is an ancient concept : The notion of stratification is not a new concept, but it has been in existence since ages. Society was always stratified on the basis of economic, politics or status. 

Social stratification exists in diverse forms : The forms of social stratification varied from one society to another. For example, the Indian society is stratified on the basis of caste system into Brahmins Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras, and Greek society was divided into freemen and slaves,

Gender bias refers to the practice of discrimination on the basis of the gender of the person whether a male or a female. Gender is a socially constmcted term and it refers to the social role of the person as a male or a female. Though our constitution has strictly granted equal rights to all irrespective of the gender of the person, yet biasness prevails in our society. 

The consequence of gender bias can be as follows: 

Low sex ratio : As a male child is preferred over the female child, infanticide and female foeticide is still prevalent in our society resulting in a low sex ratio. 

Low female literacy ratio : The literacy level of the female in 2011 is 65.46% as compared to 82.14% for males. The statistics clearly indicates that investing on female education is considered as a wastage of money as it would not prove to be beneficial because she would go to her husband’s home. 

Gender wage differentials : The females earn 64% of what their male counterparts earn with the same occupation and with the same qualification and equal amount of job responsibilities. 

Domestic violence and dowry deaths : The females are exploited, verbally abused, beaten for satisfying the male ego. In extreme cases, the women are even killed for failing to fulfill the demands for dowry.

The features of the social change are as follows : 

• Social change is a universal phenomenon which occurs in all societies, whether primitive or modem as no society can remain static. 

• Social change is a community change as it brings about a change in the life patterns of several individuals. 

• The speed of social change is not uniform in age period or within the same society. 

• Social change occurs as an essential law, whether it is a natural change or a planned one. 

• Definite prediction regarding the nature and extent of social change is impossible. 

• Social change is a human change and may create chain section.

Two negative impacts of mass media are as follows : 

• Easy availability of non-traditional literature and graphic content. This in turn can harm the personality development process of the younger generation. 

• False news can often be created and circulated that can help to spread rumors and promote vandalism.

Any form of violence that is suffered by an individual within the boundaries of their private sphere or domestic sphere is said to be domestic violence. It can take the form of physical, emotional, financial or psycholo¬gical violence or harassment. Usually women are the most common victims of domestic violence. However in some instances the aged, children as well as men may be the victims of domestic violence.

Shifting Axe Cultivation : Shifting Cultivation refers to the form of cultivation where a large area of land is cultivated for few years and then abandoned for some time until, the fertility of the land is restored naturally. This type of cultivation is practiced in tropical regions and consists of felling of trees on a hillside a little before the sowing season and setting them on fire.

Mass Media refers to a technology that is intended to reach a large number of people. Its basic purpose is to convey the information to the general public. The popular mass media are newspaper, radio, television, internet, magazine, etc. People rely on mass media to draw information related to social issues, political issues, entertainment, economics, etc. 

The newspaper and magazine target to reach only literate people, while radio and television can reach all the people. In the recent past, with the invention of internet, people are now able to draw information immediately at the mere click of the mouse. Mass media plays a major role in forming the public opinion and in controlling the actions of the people. 

The various types of mass media are :

Traditional Media: It is most appropriate to term as mass media, because it relates to the minds and hearts of the local population. Performing arts, folk theaters like Yatra of West Bengal, Shumang Leela of Manipur, and puppetry etc. come under the horizon of the traditional media. 

Print Media: The print media includes newspapers, magazines, brochures, news¬letters, books and even leaflets and pamphlets. Visual media like photography can also be mentioned under this sub-head, since photography is an important mass media, which communicates via visual representations. 

Electronic Media: This mass media includes television and radio. This category also includes electronic media like movies, CD’s and DVDs as well as the new hottest electronic gadgets. 

New Media: Mobile phones, computers and internet are often referred to as the newage media. Internet has opened up several new opportunities for mass communication which include email, websites, blogging, Internet TV and many other mass media which are booming today.

Any form of media that reaches out to a large number of audience or people at the same time providing them with information and spreading awareness can be termed as Mass Media. The newspapers, radios, internet, televisions etc. all serve as examples of mass media, communication takes place through technology.

The population growth of cities, due to movement of people from rural to urban centers refer to the process of Urbanization. Urbanization was a direct result of industrial growth and development in India. Urbanization promotes individuality and may also be a factor that contributes to the breakdown of the Indian joint families.

Panchayati Raj System came into being in 1992 on recommendations given by Balwant Rai Mehta Committee. The 73rd Constitu¬tional Amendment was introduced to bring about democracy at grassroot level through decentralisation. Panchayati Raj System is a three-tier system, consisting of Gram Panchayat, Mandal Parishad or Block Samiti or Panchayat Samiti (block level), and Zila Parishad (district level). It is responsible for ensuring economic development and social justice. It is compulsory for local self government bodies in rural and municipal areas to hold its elections after every five years. Some seats are kept reserved for SC, ST and women candidates.

Ethnicity : Ethinicity is a situation when a social group which is generally a minority in a society shares within itself a common culture and a we-feeling. Ehnicity refers to a category of people who identify with each other on the basis of common ancestral, social, cultural, or national experiences. 

Following are the features of ethnicity : 

• It is primarily an inherited status. 

• Its members have shared cultural heritage, origin, myth, ancestry, homeland, language and/or dialect, symbolic systems such as religion, history, mythology and ritual, dressing style, cuisine, art and physical appearance. 

• The members have a belief that they are culturally distinctive and different from the outsiders. 

• The ethnic group has a very strong sense of solidarity. 

• They are generally a territorial group as well. 

• Ethnic divisions are social groups- people within the group share a common culture-they are like in groups and have 

• the ‘we’ feeling. 

• Ethnic groups are characterized by discrimination by other groups. 

• Ethnic groups are generally not the dominant group. 

• Historical conditions influence ethnic group interrelationships. 

• Position and significance of ethnic groups varies from society to society.

The type of residence where the nephews and nieces stay in the house of their maternal uncle is called as Avunculocal residence. In such cases, the maternal uncle holds a very high authoritative place in the lives of his sister’s, children. Mostly associated with Matrilineal societies.

Dr. B .S. Guha has classified the Indian tribes on the basis of the races. He has divided them into the following racial groups: the Negrito, the Caucasoid, the ProtoAustraloid, the Mongoloid and the Nordic Group.

Cultural classification of tribes in India : Tribals were classified on the basis of their cultural distance from rural and urban groups. This comparative approach is considered to be important in evolving a plan for rehabilitation because it focuses on those problems of tribal India, which are the outcome of haphazard contact with or isolation of tribes from the rural urban population. 

Tribal Culture can be : 

Assimilative Adaptive : 

Adaptive further consist of: 

• Commensalic. 

• Symbiotic 

• Acculturative. 

Commensalic : Those with common economic pursuits with their neighbors, and thus their growth is arrested. 

Symbiotic : Their relationship with their neighbors is based on interdependence and acculturation is haphazard. 

Acculturative : There is a one way flow of culture traits, where tribal’s are taking in culture traits from the surrounding rural and urban groups. This leads to a situation of culture crisis leading to sudden cultural changes. 

According to Majumdar all three of the above are in a state of culture crisis. The main criticism to this theory lies in the fact that though this classification could help in the rehabilitation of tribals it does not include cultures that are culturally distant from rural and urban groups.

Following are the main tribal economies : 

Food-Gatherers and Hunters : The nomadic tribes like the Andamanese, Onge, Kadar, Kharia, Jarawa, Lodha, etc. practise hunting and food gathering. They practice subsistence economy and have a simple type of social organisation. 

Permanent Settled Cultivators : The tribes like Oraon, Munda, Bhumij, Ho, Gond, Santhal, practice permanent settled cultivation. They practice wet cultivation through transplantation method and are unaware about modem means of cultivation and irrigation. They practice crop rotation. Some work as sharecroppers (Bhag-Khasi) and some as agricultural labourers. These landless agricultural labourers also practice seasonal migration to the neighbouring states. 

Pastoral Economy : The Toda of the Nilgiri hills of South India and Bhotia of Almora practice pastoral economy. They rear buffaloes and cows; the milk and milkproducts are exchanged to get the things for everyday use. 

Shifting Hill Cultivators : Tribes such as the Gonds, the Nagas, Khasi, Savara, Garo practice this primitive form of cultivation by adopting ‘slash and bum’ method. It is known as Jhum cultivation by the Assam tribes and as Podu by the Gonds. A hilly forest area is selected for this purpose which is abandoned after three successive cultivating seasons as the soil loses its fertility. Different Kharif crops such like Bajra, Jowar, pulses, potato, tobacco, and sugar-cane are grown through this method. 

Craftsmen : Some of the tribals practice their traditional crafts along with their main sources of subsistence. The Naga and the Khasi tribes are proficient in coloured handloom products. The Lohar are traditional blacksmiths. As they get only marginal profits in their traditional specialized crafts, they resort to other jobs.

This theory is a tribal form of religious theory founded by E.B. Tylor. This theory is essentially a belief in the spirit or soul of the dead. According to him, Animism is a given form of religion in which man finds the presence of spirit in every object that surrounds him.

The cultural contact with Hindus and conversion to Christianity has led to decay of tribal dormitories. The glamour of urban life and inferior treatment of dormitories by the outside people has led tribals to get detached from their own dormitories. Some of them secretly continue with them, but feel shy to admit it. A few dormitories of ‘Ghotul’ of Muria Gond have named their officers after village officers during British rule like Dewan, Tehsildar, Silledar. Some dormitories have adopted and assimilated new ways of social life. 

The Christian missionaries also dissuaded tribal to dismantle the dormitories and to adopt Christianity. But such converted individuals feel a sense of deprivation and resentment. The influence of Christianity on dormitories is more dominant in northeastern region. However, decay of dormitories without availability of any substitute has led to cultural breakdown and has invited a situation of anarchy. In the absence of the dormitories, the parent-child relationship has also got strained amongst the tribals.

Primitive economic systems have characteristics that make them structurally different from modem economic system : 

They are : 

Inadequate, ineffective and wasteful use of nature (in the absence of advanced techno¬logy), (For example shifting cultivation where agricultural surplus is also not created). Money as a store of value and a medium of exchange is not widely used in primitive society. Therefore modern concepts such as banking and credit are absent. Relations in primitive society are based on barter. 

The profit motive of economic dealings is absent in primitive economies. Mutual obli¬gation, sharing and solidarity are important. 

The co-operative and collective efforts are important in these economies which are communal economies. 

The rate of innovation is very low in these economies. Therefore there is stability and uniformity due to simplicity and uniformity of the techniques used. 

The market as an institution is absent. Weekly markets or seasonal markets exist. Therefore competition and monopology are absent. Economic activities in primitive societies are directed largely to the manufacture of consumption and not production of goods.

Following are the main tribal economies : 

Food-Gatherers and Hunters : The nomadic tribes like the Andamanese, Onge, Kadar, Kharia, Jarawa, Lodha, etc. practise hunting and food gathering. They practice subsistence economy and have a simple type of social organisation. 

Permanent Settled Cultivators : The tribes like Oraon, Munda, Bhumij, Ho, Gond, Santhal, practice permanent settled cultivation. They practice wet cultivation through transplantation method and are unaware about modern means of cultivation and irrigation. They practice crop rotation. Some work as sharecroppers (Bhag-Khasi) and some as agricultural labourers. These landless agricultural labourers also practice seasonal migration to the neighbouring states. 

Pastoral Economy : The Toda of the Nilgiri hills of South India and Bhotia of Almora practice pastoral economy. They rear buffaloes and cows; the milk and milkproducts are exchanged to get the things for everyday use.

Shifting Hill Cultivators : Tribes such as the Gonds, the Nagas, Khasi, Savara, Garo practice this primitive form of cultivation by adopting‘slash and bum’ method. It is known as Jhum cultivation by the Assam tribes and as Podu by the Gonds. A hilly forest area is selected for this purpose which is abandoned after three successive cultivating seasons as the soil loses its fertility. Different Kharif crops such like Bajra, Jowar, pulses, potato, tobacco, and sugar-cane are grown through this method. 

Craftsmen : Some of the tribals practice their traditional crafts along with their main sources of subsistence. The Naga and the Khasi tribes are proficient in colored hand loom products. The Lohar are traditional blacksmiths. As they get only marginal profits in their traditional specialized crafts, they resort to other jobs.

As the first stage in moral development, preconventional morality is essentially the approach to right and wrong taken by children. Children often make moral decision based on how it will impact on them. Actions that lead to rewards are perceived as good or acceptable, once that lead to punishment are seen as bad or unacceptable/or example.

Education : Education is derived from the Latin word e due are which means to bring up. Thus, education can be defined as the process through which the person is brought up, in order to develop in him/her those habits and abilities which help him/her to face the future in a worthwhile manner. 

Following are some of the functions of education: 

To complete the process of socialization : It is through education that a person learns to differentiate between right and wrong and learns basic human values. 

Transmission of cultural heritage : It is through education that culture is transmitted from one generation to another in the form of art, literature, text, religion and philosophy. 

Reformation of attitudes : Education helps in reformation of already framed attitudes, so that the child can develop right attitudes and beliefs. 

Occupational role : Education always has a utilitarian end and it enables the person to earn livelihood by doing a productive task. 

To instill a sense of competition : The function of education is to inculcate the sense of competition, so that the student can work hard in order to perform well.

Animism refers to belief in soul or ancestral spirits. It is a theory of religion propagated by E. B. Tylor. He believed that religion originated and was maintained on the beliefs of soul, ghosts, ancestral spirits and other things which were imagined and accepted without much real rationality in them. He named this as animism. 

Analysis of Tylor’s theory of Animism: According to Tylor, belief in spirit beings (or soul) was the minimum definition of religion. 

Animism has two abiding principles: 

• There is life after death; 

• There are greater and lesser spirits. 

It has two dimensions: life after death, and hierarchies. 

Tylor’s theory has two aspects: 

The argument that soul explains dreams and other psychic states: This has been criticized on the basis that dreams could not provide the emotional state needed for religious experience. 

The argument that from the idea of soul comes animism, polytheism, and monotheism: This has been criticized because it must assume that primitive man remained unchanged [in his animist belief] for hundreds and thousands of years.

The tribals are mostly engaged in various types of economies such as, food gathering economy (collecting economy), agriculture, shifting-axe cultivation, handicrafts, and pastoralism. However, a last few decades have seen rapid changes in tribal economy. 

Important factors responsible for changes in tribal economy : 

Industrialization : The impact of industrialization is felt everywhere. The movement of the people towards industrial zones for jobs and other opportunities has great impact on tribal economy. The young tribals are no longer keen to play traditional roles in their respective places. There is a mass migration of people from tribal belts to industrial belts. 

Urbanization and Modernization : The movement of the people towards urban areas for better lifestyle is another reason for the change in tribal economy. They are attracted to modem ways of living in urban centers. As a result, tribal economic structure has been disintegrating at a rapid speed. 

Need for Education : There is a positive association between the level of education and the incidence of people’s mobility to urban centers. The educational opportunity has opened up the doors of possibility for almost every segment of population. Higher the level of education, greater is the mobility of the people. Many educatedtribals are working in the industries and organizations as professionals, executive officers and other skilled laborers. They have given up their traditional occupations. 

Land alienation : Many tribals who lived in secluded areas, such as forests, for centuries together, have come in headlong conflict with the government as well as private organiza¬tions because of their undue encroachment. Displacement of the tribals for development works such as constructing roads, dams, establishment of towns and industries has greatly affected tribal life and economy. 

Government restrictions : Tribal economy is largely dependent on shifting cultivation and use of forest resources. The restriction on the part of the modem govern-ment concerning the same, citing the reason of environmental imbalance, has curbed the progress of their traditional economy. Conse quently, many tribals are forced to move away and take up industrial labour as their occupation.

Secularism is a belief that states that no religion should be considered as state religion. In Indian context, secularism means equal treatment of all the religions by the state. India is a country with multi-religions. A number of religions are practiced in India such as, Hinduism, Sikhism, Jainism, Christianity, Buddhism, etc. The different religions have different rituals and practices. 

Given such a condition, chances of religious clashes to emerge between the different groups time- groups, time and again, is inevitable. Thus, the state has granted freedom to every citizen for practicing his/her own religion. In order to safe guard the interests of its citizens , Indian constitution has strictly prohibited any discrimination based on religious grounds. Also the state does not promote any religion as its own state religion. 

Role of Securalism in plural society like India: 

• It enables the people of different religion to live in civity with respect for all faiths. 

• It is a part of democracy which grans equal rights. 

• It safeguards minority and democracy by limiting the powers of majority. 

• It checks the growth of destructive communalism.

India is primarily an agricultural country, where the land plays a role in determining the agricultural relationships. 

Agrarian land relations in India can be divided into the following relationships : 

Land owners (zamindars): They are the tax gatherers and non-cultivating owners of the land. They mostly belong to upper caste groups. 

The tenants: They hire land from others for cultivation and give rent for it. 

The agricultural labourers: Their position is that of bondsmen and hereditarily attached labourers. They generally belong to lower caste groups. However, due to the impact of land reform movements and rural development pro-grammes following independence, these rigid relationships have attained somewhat flexibility.

Religion is generally understood as a belief in supernatural things and beings. It is a belief system that explains supernatural spirit which is over and above everything else. 

Morality is often equated with moral code and is sometimes taken for those rules of behaviour which are admitted at large in society. In this sense, morality is equivalent to mores. Moral principles, ideas and notions are expressed in the form of set of values called morality. Morality has been a vital factor in all societies of the world, including the uncivilized, in controlling the social behaviour of man. Moral rules which prescribe the wrong or right are the very basis of our social life. Moral principles get the sanction of the society and strongly support the general system of values. Since moral ideas are inculcated into the minds of the children from the very beginning, they become habitual to obey them. 

Some important relationships between religion and morality can be listed as follows: Both religion and morality prescribe and control human behaviour. The prime objective of both religion and morality is to provide sound principles of action that will guide peoples’ way of thinking and behaving. 

Each religion has a code of conduct of its own which is very often based on moral values. In other words, religion is not devoid of human values. Human values, on the other hand, are intrinsically linked to religious precepts. So, the religious precepts and ethical standards go hand-in-hand. 

Moral standards draw their support from religion itself. Much of the moral practices of society are justified on the grounds of religious belief systems. Religion gives sufficient justification to existing social and moral practices. 

If the moral standards are addressed to man directly, the religious standards are addressed to him indirectly. So, the violation of moral codes have direct consequences whereas, the disobedience of religious codes have indirect consequences.