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Religion is indeed a pacifying agent as it helps to resolve the inner conflicts and fills the life with hope. However, it also acts as a diversifying force. 

Following are some of the functions of religion : 

Religion explains all the human sufferings : 

Religion acts as a pacifying agent in times of sufferings as it soothes the emotions during the disappointments and helps in integration of the personality of a person. It sustains interest in life and helps in making it bearable. 

It helps in enhancing self importance : It helps the person to believe in his capabilities and encourages him to play a significant role in the society. 

It is a valuable source of social cohesion: Religion is the foundation upon which all the social values rest; which plays role in controlling individual’s actions. Hence, it helps in binding the society by giving common values. 

Following are some of the dysfunctions of religion : 

A Detrimental force : 

Religion has often proved to be a catastrophic force as many times wars are fought in the name of religion. Many times it stands in the way of national integration. For example, Mandir-Masjid issue in Ayodhya has brought a disastrous effect on the national integration. 

Religion promotes fanaticism : People . following a particular religion often have a fanatic approach to the religion to which they belong and it can often promote a sense of superiority whereby people then tend to consider religion of all others as inferior. This can create a sense of discontent often leading to outbreak of communal violence amongst the people.

Comparison between Religion and Science : Religion is incompatible with science and there is a continuous conflict between the two. While science is based on the evidence, religion is based on faith. According to science, all events occur due to natural causes while religion believes that behind every action there is some unseen supernatural or divine power. Science believes in what it sees and religion believes in what it believes. Science helps in solving the day to day problems by introducing new inventions. 

It is important to note that the dogmatic religion has always opposed science and interfered with its development .Religion also opposes free enquiry. Science though deals with more realistic objects, but it has also not solved all the problems of life. The importance of religion cannot be denied, where science fails religion brings hope. Religion is important as long as there is suffering in life. It helps to counteract the stress and strains of modern life. There is reconcilable difference between science and religion.

Totemism is a form of tribal religious belief in which people believe that they have descended from animate or inanimate objects and hold a feeling of awe and reverence towards these objects. These objects may range from being plants and animals to even stones or rocks. Durkheim observed totemism as being the simplest and most basic form of religion among the aborigines of Australia. 

The totemic object is worshipped and considered to be sacred. Totemic objects are not only important for the people as religion but also are associated with clan membership. Every clan has a totem which could be an animal or a plant. The tribe is reverent towards the totemic object and adopts its name and offers sacrifice to it and adorn it. They consider the relationship with the totemic object of a descendant and believe themselves to have descended from that object. Harming of the totem is not allowed, although, eating of the totem is allowed during special occasions. The loss of a totem is mourned ceremoniously.

The basic difference between religion and science is that religion asks one to surrender before the supernatural without any questioning, purely on faith. While science encourages questioning and tells its adherents not to accept anything on face value. Thus deep scepticism is a virtue in science while it is considered heresy in religion.

Globalization or globalization is the process of interaction and integration among people, companies, and governments worldwide. In 2000, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) identified four basic aspects of globalization: trade and transactions, capital and investment movements, migration and movement of people, and the dissemination of knowledge.

Sex is a biological term that refers to male or female; while gender is a sociological term that refers to the man or woman and their associated roles in the society.

The barter system of exchange refers to an economic system in which payment in exchange of goods or services is not made through money, but in kind. Barter system can work only when there is double coincidence of wants. 

For example- the zamindar paying the nai by giving him some wheat.

Superstitions refers to belief in supernatural causality, without any direct link between the cause and effect relationship. It is contrary to natural science. 

For example- belief in witchcraft, omens, prophecies, etc.

(i) Station A is at a high altitude and is surrounded by lofty mountains. It is out of influence of the monsoon. 

(ii) The months of July and August receive the highest rainfall.

An urban area, according to the latest census, is defined as follows :

(i) All places with a Municipality, Corporation, Cantonment Board or Notified Town, Committee, etc., are included as Urban areas. 

(ii) All other places which satisfy the following criteria: A minimum population of 5000. At least 75% of male working population engaged in non-agricultural pursuits. A density of population of at least 400 persons per square km.

The climatic conditions of the tropical evergreen forests in India are : 

1. Rainfall-above 200 cms. 

2. Temperature – 24°C average, 24°C – 27°C. 

3. Humidity 70%.

(i) According to the census 2011, the population of India was 1.21 billion and it can be estimated that the present population of India will be more than 1.21 billion. 

(ii) India’s position in the world is second with reference to the world population.

The two main causes for an increase in the number of high population density areas in the Indian region are : 

1. The large scale migration of people from the surrounding areas, in search of livelihood and better amenities of life. 

2. People migrate to urban areas because of availability of better educational facilities especially that higher education.

(ii) The main economic functions performed in a rural settlement are : 

Agriculture, Mining, Forestry, Fishing and Lumbering.

The three reasons for immigration to the urban city of Lucknow are :

1. Urban centres like Lucknow provide vast scope for employment in industries, transport, trade and other services. 

2. It also has a provision for better and higher educational facilities so that there are a number of schools, colleges and university. Hence, the flock of students moves to Lucknow from the neighbouring villages. 

3. Urban centres also offer hospital facilities, healthcare centres, legal advice and also other services that can be availed.

The two reasons for the degradation of arable land area in India are : 

1. Soil erosion. 

2. Excessive use of chemical fertilizers.

(i) When the houses are constructed along the banks of a pond, tank or a lake, the settlement takes the shape of a circle. People prefer to build houses near the source of water. In this pattern the houses, offices, business centres, are in the centre. As you move out there are garden plots, surrounded by cultivated land, pastures, woodland, in successive rings. 

(ii) The two areas where this pattern is found in India are :

1. The upper Ganga-Yamuna Doab region. 

2. In the parts of Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Maharashtra.

Environmental management is a process of planning, review, assessment, decision making, and the like which is essential in real-life situations of limited sources and changing priorities.

The need of management of environment has emerged as a major concern before the world community and this need is felt more urgently in developing countries like India. New innovations such as sustainable/clean technologies, environmental auditing, eco-friendly products etc., have been developed to save our environment from degradation.

(i) There is a need for environmental management because environmental problems are becoming serious due to increasing population, industrialization, urbanization and poor management procedures. In the process of development, the natural resources are used by mankind in thoughtless and indiscriminate manner for their immediate gain. This process results in overall degradation of the environment and increases complexity. 

(ii) Sustainable development may be defined as the development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

A is CH₃CHO → Acetaldehyde

B is CH₃COOH → Acetic acid

C is CH₃COCl → Acetyl chloride

D is CH₃COOCOCH₃ → Acetaldoxime

E is CH₃CH = NOH → Acetaldoxime

F is C₆H₅OCOCH₃ → Phenyl acetate

V₂O₅ is used in contact process.

A → Sn + conc. HCl

B → NaNO₂ + conc. HCl

C → Cu₂Cl₂ + HCl

D → NaOH

E → 2-hydroxy benzene sulphonic acid.

F → 4-hydroxy benzene sulphonic acid.

(i) Ionisation isomerism

(ii) Linkage isomerism

(i) Hydrate isomerism

(ii) Coordination isomerism.

(i) hexaamminecobalt (II) ions

(ii) x + 6(0) = +3

x = +3

No. of Co in complex ion = +3

(iii) d²sp³

(iv) [CO(NH₃)₆] ³⁺

Co³⁺ has no unpaired electron.

Hence, [Co(NH₃)₂]³⁺ is diamagnetic.

(i) Complex has d²sp³ hybridisation.

(ii) Complex is diamagnetic in nature.

With Hinsberg’s reagent: Primary amines give N-alkyl benzene sulphonamide soluble in alkali. Secondary amines give N, N-dialkyl benzene sulphonamide insoluble in alkali. Tertiary amines have no action with Hinsberg’s reagent.

(i) [COF₆]^3- 

x + (6 × -1) = -3

Oxidation number of Co, x = +3

(ii) 4 unpaired electrons.

(iii) The complexion is paramagnetic.

(iv) Hexafluorocobaltate (III) ion.

Structural isomer → [Co(NH₃)₅Cl]Cl.NO₂ Type of isomerism → Ionisation isomerism.

Transition metals form complexes due to:

(i) Small size and high nuclear charge of these metals.

(ii) Availability of vacant d-orbitals of suitable energy to accommodate lone pairs of electrons donated by the ligands.

(i) Neon gas

(ii) Argon mixed with neon gas

w = -2.303 n RT log \(\frac{V_2}{V_1}\)

= -2.303 x 1 x 8.314 x 273 x log \(\frac{22.4}{2.24}\)

= -2.303 x 1 x 8.314 x 273 x 1

= -5227.17 J

The decrease of degree dissociation of a non-weak electrolyte on the addition of a strong electrolyte containing a common ion is called common ion effect.

The area of health care which provides advice by the expert geneticists on genetic problems is called genetic counselling. It is not a technology but uses biochemical, statistical and physiological techniques to determine chances of occurrence of the actual disease. It thus plays an important role in the welfare of healthy society.

Genetic counselling is advisable for such persons who :

• have a birth defect due to genetic disorder. 

• plan to have children after the age of 35. 

• have had spontaneous abortions. 

• have a close relative with a genetic disorder/disability. 

• are parents of a child which has a birth defect or genetic disorder. 

• have ethnic disorders like sickle cell anaemia etc. Genetic counselling is helpful to those couples who think that there may be a risk of having a child with a congenital disease. The genetic counsellor then identifies the disorder and advises accordingly. This may allow couples to select the children free from sex-linked abnormalities in the children. Genetic counsellor thus helps in prenatal diagnosis.

Genetic counselling given by the experts is helpful to the prospective parents about the chance of their conceiving children with hereditary disorders. Due to growing knowledge of inheritance, now we have come to know that numerous disabilities have genetic origin. Some of these genetic disorders cannot be predicted easily but other can be. This has enabled us to predict the occurrence of certain genetic disorders such as haemophilia, cystic fibrosis, some kinds of muscular dystrophy etc. if we have proper information about the history of the disorder in the related families. Through genetic counselling, the history of a genetic disorder of the related families is researched and on the basis of this study, the parents are advised on the likelihood of that certain disorder arising in their children.

(1) The intensity of the ejected X-rays depends upon the number of electrons striking the anti cathode which in its turn depends upon the heating current in the filament. Thus, the intensity of X-rays can be changed by changing the healing current or temperature.

(2) The penetrating power of the X-rays depends upon the accelerating voltage i.e., potential difference between the cathode and the anti cathode. More the accelerating voltage, more the penetrating power of the X-rays.

(i) Computed Scanning (also called computed tomography – (CT): The technique was invented by Sir Godfrey Hounsfield who was awarded a Nobel prize in 1979 for this major achievement. During the last few years, advances in CT technology have led to fast scan times and improved image quality. As a result the scope of CT has widened enormously so that it is now applied to almost any anatomical site.

In CT scanning a computer is used for reconstructing the image made by X-rays instead being recorded directly on the photographic film. The CT scanning technique is used for the diagnosis of the diseases of brain, spinal cord, chest, abdomen and also for the detection of benign and malignant tumours. Thus, it helps to determine the feasibility of operation treatment and also to assess the results of the treatment.

(ii) Prosthesis : Prosthesis is the implantation of an artificial substitute for any body part within the body. It enables the physical handicapped person to live a comfortable and productive life.

Internal prosthesis devices include intraocular lens, dentures. Prosthesis devices also include nose implant for cosmetic reshaping, electronic hearing aids in the ear, artificial arm or leg.

(iii) Pacemaker : It is electronic cardiac-support device that produces rhythmic electrical impulses that take over the regulation of the heartbeat in patients with certain types of -heart disease.

When electrical conduction system is interrupted, as is the case in a number of diseases including congestive heart failure and as an after effect of heart surgery, the condition is called heart block. An artificial pacemaker may be employed temporarily until normal conduction returns or permanently to overcome the block.

The first pacemaker were of a type called asynchronous, or fixed, and they generated regular discharges that overrode the natural pacemaker. The rate of asynchronous pacemakers may be set at the factory or may be altered by the physician, but once set they will continue to generate an electric pulse at regular intervals. Most are set at 70 to 75 beats per minute.

More recent devices are synchronous, or demand pacemakers that trigger heart contractions only when the normal beat is interrupted. Most pacemakers of this type are designed to generate a pulse when the natural heart rate falls below 68 to 72 beats per minute. These instruments have a sensing electrode that detects the atrial impulse.

The following main morphological changes occurred in the ancestors of modem man.

• Narrowing and elevation of nose. 

• Formation of chin. 

• Reduction of brow ridges. 

• Flattening of face. 

• Reduction in body hair. 

• Development of curves in the vertebral column for erect posture. 

• Formation of bowel-like pelvic girdle with broad ilia (pi. of ilium) in support of viscera. 

• Increase in height. 

• Attainment of erect posture and bipedal locomotion. 

• Enlargement and rounding of cranium. 

• Increase in brain size and intelligence. 

• Broadening of the forehead and with vertical elevation.

Smaller size because atomic size decreases from left to right across the period. (smaller)

(i) Ionic compounds have ions held strongly by electrostatic forces of attraction. These strong forces need more energy to be broken apart. Hence, they have high melting point. 

(ii) Inert gases do not form ions because they have completely filled octet. They are extremely stable. Hence, they neither loose, nor gain electrons. 

(iii) As we move from left to right along a period, the atomic size decreases due to the increase in nuclear charge thus more energy is required to remove the electron, hence ionisation potential increase.

Higher electron affinity because electron affinity increases from left to right across the period. (higher)

(i) solid 

(ii) hydrogen gas 

(iii) downward (HCl gas is heavy than air) 

(iv) haematite 

(v) iron (III) chloride

Higher metallic character because metallic character decreases from left to right across the period. (higher)

The process used for the concentration of the ore is froth floatation process.

(i) Nitrogen dioxide 

(ii) hydrogen sulphide

SO₂ and NO₂ are produced when sulphur reacts with conc. HNO₃. 

8S + 32HNO₃ ---> 8SO₂ + 32NO₂ +16H₂O

(i) SO₂

(ii) H₂S

(iii) O₂

(iv) H₂

(v) H₂

Those valence electrons which does not participate in the bond formation and remain in non bonded state are called lone pair of electrons.