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(a) Receipt and Payment Account: It is the summary of Cash Book over a specified period. Actual cash receipts and actual cash payments dining the year are considered in this account. These cash receipts and cash payments are recorded under appropriate headings. Such an account necessarily commences with the initial cash and Bank Balances/overdraft and closes with the final cash and Bank Balances/overdraft. 

(b) Principle of consistency states that accounting procedures and methods should remain consistent from one year to another. These should not be changed from year to year as otherwise the net profits of different years will not be comparable. 

(c) Discounting of a bill means selling the bill before the due date to a bank at less than the face value. The banker takes the bill and in return gives cash which is equal to the amount of the bill minus the discount. The bank may collect the amount of the bill from the drawee on the due date. In case, the bill is dishonoured on maturity, the bank can recover the payment from the drawer. 

(d) Components of Marketing Mix: 

1. Product Mix. 

2. Price Mix. 

3. Place or Physical iJistribution Mix. 

4. Promotion Mix. 

(e) In-Home Market: Marketer carouse door-to-door selling through trained sales force. Initial contact may be made by phone or mailed-in-coupon. This method is costly but effective. In India Eureka Forbes is using this method.

Main Principles of Accounting: 

1. The Business Entity Concept: According to this concept, a business firm is treated as a unit separate and distinct from its owners. A completely separate set of books is kept for the firm and business transactions are recorded from the firm’s point of view. The capital provided by the owner is treated as a liability of the firm. Interest on capital is treated as an expense of business. Similarly, the money/goods withdrawn by the proprietor from the firm for his personal use is treated as drawings. The concept of separate entity is necessary for ascertaining the true net profits and financial position of a business firm. 

2. The Going Concern Concept: It is assumed that the business will continue to exist for a long time in the future. Transactions are recorded on the assumption that the business will exist for an indefinite period of time. It is on this assumption that a distinction is made between capital expenditure and revenue expenditure. Fixed assets are recorded at their original cost less depreciation. Market value of fixed assets is not recorded, as these assets are not to be sold in the near future. 

3. Accounting Period Concept: It is due to this concept that financial statements are prepared at regular intervals, generally one year. This period is called accounting period. The net profit/net loss of business is ascertained separately for each accounting period. 

4. Money Measurement Concept: On the basis of this concept, only those transactions are recorded in accounts which can be expressed in terms of money. For example, the retirement of the chairman of the company cannot be recorded because it is not possible to measure the monetary effect of retirement except in terms of gratuity and other benefits payable to the chairman. 

5. The Matching Principle: According to this principle, cost of a particular period should be charged from the revenue of same period only. Only such matching of cost and revenue can reveal the true profit or loss for a period. When cost is associated with a particular product or service, revenue earned from that product or service should be matched to its cost. This principle provides the guidelines as to how the expenses are to be matched with revenue. It requires that in determining the net profit, all costs which are applicable to revenue of that period should be charged against that revenue.

Product component of the marketing mix involves planning, developing and producing the right type of products and services to be marketed by the firm. It deals with the product range, durability and other qualities. Apart from producing the right product, emphasis should also be laid on its proper branding, packaging, color, and other product features. Followings are the elements of product mix :

(1) Product range : Product range is a group of products that are related either because they satisfy similar needs of different market segments, or because they satisfy different but related needs of a given market segment. 

(2) Brand : Brand is a name of mark or design or same combination of these, used to identify the products of one seller (individual or firm) and to differentiate them from competitor’s product. In other words a brand means a mark made on commodities to indicate its quality and manufacturer. To brand a product –means to stamp a product with some identifying mark or name. 

(3) Package : A package is a wrapper or container in which a product is enclosed, encased or sealed. Packaging protects the product during storage and transportation. It reduces the risks of spoilage, breakage, leakage, etc. Packaging enables the manufacturer to provide useful information to the customers. A good package acts as a silent salesman in self-service stores such as Super Bazaars.

(4) Service : A service is any act or performance that one party can offer to another. It is essentially intangible and does not result in the ownership of anything. Its production may or may not be tied to physical product.

Interview, in general, are conducted in the following ways : 

(1)  Structured or Patterned Interview :  In such an interview, different sets of questions, having the same pattern and with the same difficulty level, are framed in advance. Different candidates are asked different series of questions. Each series, having the same pattern and the same difficulty level, bring about objectivity in the interview.

(2)  Unstructured or Non-directive Interview : In this interview, questions to be asked are not planned in advance. Questions pertaining to the job are asked and candidates are asked to respond freely to show their ability for the job. 

(3) Stress Interview :  This interview is held to note how thick-skinned the candidate is. The candidates are asked awkward questions and it is seen how they react to such questions. If they do not lose their balance of mind, they prove their worth as suitable candidates.

(4) Group Interview :  In this interview, a number of candidates face the interview committee together. The candidates are asked to opine on an issue or they are asked to discuss a topic. When the candidates respond and give reasons and counter-reasons, their ability to communicate, presence of mind, expression, etc., are judges by the interviewers.

(i) Machines – Fixed capital 

(ii) Raw material – Circulating capital 

(iii) Fuel – Circulating capital 

(iv) Office furniture – Fixed capital

Characteristics of capital as a factor of production are : 

(i) Capital is a passive factor of production: Capital cannot produce without the help of active services of labour. To produce with machine, labour is required. Thus, labour is an active, whereas capital is a passive factor of production. 

(ii) Capital depreciates: As we go on using capital, the value of capital goes on depreciating. When machines are used continuously for some time, these depreciate and their value falls.

(iii) Man produces capital: Capital is that wealth which is used in the production of goods. Capital is the result of human labour. Thus, every type of capital such as road, machines, etc. is produced by man. 

(iv) Capital is not an indispensable factor of production: Production can be possible even without capital, whereas, land and labour are the original and indispensable factors of production. 

(v) Capital is prospective: Capital is considered much prospective, as the accumulation of capital yield an income. 

(vi) Capital is productive: Production can be increased to a large extent if workers work with adequate capital.

The steps involved in the process of personal selling are : 

(1)  Pre-sale Preparation : The first step in the process of selling is creating a well-motivated and trained group of persons, who will undertake the task of selling. They must be well-acquainted with the product they will sell, its uses, price, quality and other relevant details. 

(2)  Prospecting and Locating Potential Buyers : The next step is to locate potential buyers. A salesman can prepare a list of present customers of the- company and users of competitive products. But this may not be sufficient, persuade the prospects to go in for his product.

(3) Creating Awareness and Demand : A salesman clear customer's doubts and answers the queries in a manner which creates a favorable image of the product. Further a salesman relates the qualities and utility of the product with the needs and requirements of the prospects, thereby creating a demand for the product. A salesman may include demonstration as a part of sales technique. It helps to create interest.

(4) Closing the Sales : A salesman has to act with intelligence and patience to close the sale favorably. The last minute indecision on the part of prospective buyer may require the salesman to re-emphasize the points explained and discussed earlier. He should not force any decision on the prospect. He should help him to come to a decision. The sales should be closed on a friendly note.

(5) Additional Selling :  While actuating sales of the product, a salesman takes up the opportunity to offer to the customer something connected with the main product. For example, while selling shoes-the main product, other relevant items like laces, socks, shoe polish, shoe brush, etc., can be easily sold.

Productive Debt is the public debt which is used by the Government for productive purpose e.g., to build roads, bridges etc.

Various Steps in Personal Selling: 

1. Preparation: First of all a well-trained and motivated sales force is developed. Salespersons must have knowledge of the firm and its products and services, competitors and their products and services, customers and selling techniques. They must be fully aware with the quality, uses, prices, etc., of the goods to be sold. 

2. Prospecting: Prospecting means locating and identifying the potential buyers. A list of prospective customer can be prepared with the help, of dealers, salespersons, telephone and trade directories etc. Information about fhe age, income, education, family background, tastes, preferences, etc., of prospective buyers should be collected. 

3. Approach: In this step, the salesperson makes face-to-face contact with the prospective buyer. The sales-person should introduce himself, greet the customer and start the conversation with him/her so as to create a good first impression. 

4. Presentation: Now the salesperson displays and describes the product to be sold. He should tactfully demonstrate the product and explain its quality, utility, performance etc. 

5. Closing: The salesperson concludes the sale by obtaining the consent of the buyer. Some concessions may be necessary for this purpose. He should assure the customer that he has made a wise choice and should thank the customer. In order to obtain repeat sales, the salesperson should carefully pack and deliver the product.

(a) For: Services are highly variable. It is difficult to control and measure. 

(b) For: 

1. It is assumed that the business will continue to exist for a long period in the future. The transactions are recorded in the books of the business on the assumption that it is a continuing enterprise. 

2. It is on this concept that we record fixed assets at their original cost and depreciation is charged on these assets without reference to their market value.

(c) Against: 

1. Public Relations is not propaganda which is a instrument of politics and power for social control. 

2. Propaganda does not necessarily require an ethical content and is guided solely by self-interest. 

(d) For: The cost of sugarcane can be avoided by closing down the sugar factory for one year. But the cost of factory building cannot be avoided for the year. 

(e) Against: A cheque is a very convenient method of making payment. There is no need of counting and checking notes when payment is made by a cheque.

(a) Difference between Product and Service: 

1. Tangibility: Products are tangible, i.e., they can be felt, seen, tasted, heard or smelled before they are purchased whereas services are intangible, i.e., they cannot be felt, seen, tasted or smelled before they are purchased. For example, a person wants to purchase a car. He/she can feel and see the car before purchase but a person going for a massage to the parlour, cannot feel the result before getting the massage done. 

2. Variability: Services are highly variable but products are not. For example, if a patient wants to get his liver transplanted, the services given by a hospital situated in Delhi, which is equipped with all modern amenities for doing So, will be quite different from a hospital situated in rural areas of India. 

3. Separability: Products are separable, i.e., products are manufactured, put into inventory, then through channel of distribution they reach the ultimate consumer. Thus, product is separable but this is not true in case of services, they are produced and consumed simultaneously. For example, a car is manufactured, put into inventory, distributed through their show¬rooms and then it is purchased by the customer but when a person travels by aeroplane, services of aeroplane (transportation) can be taken while it is flying, thus it is inseparable. 

4. Perishability: Products can be stored whereas services cannot be stored. Thus, products are not perishable but services are. If a showroom keeps twenty scooters for sale during one month and they are not sold, they don’t perish. But if a passenger bus has to carry fifty passengers at one time and it carries only 30 then the service meant for 20 passengers perishes. 

5. Homogeneity: Products are homogeneous in many respects. In case of standardized products, a product is a perfect substitute for another where it is impossible for an individual to distinguish one from another. Thus, if a person has to buy a Gillette shaving gel, he can pick any one lying at the store. But services are not homogeneous, they are heterogeneous. For example, if one wants to take medicine from doctor, he/she cannot choose any, but will choose the one which gives the best satisfaction.

The steps of washing lace items are : Lace articles are very delicate and valuable and need proper care to preserve their appearance and to prolong their life. 

1. Lace articles are washed in luke warm water. Very dirty laces are washed in borax solution(2 tsp. in 1/2 pint of water). 

2. Silk laces are put in broad-necked bottle containing soap solution. 

3. The bottle is then closed and shaken to clean it. 

4. The laces take out and rinsed. 

5. To remove out extra water, the lace is wrapped in towel. 

6. They can be given slight crispness by gum water, rice water, starch etc. It should be ironed when half dry. After properly clipping to any base.

(a) ‘B’ is Shivalik hills. 

‘C’ is Plains of new fertile alluvial-Khadar. 

‘D’ is Plains of older coarse nodules of alluvium-Bhangar. 

(b) C is the sediment deposit which is new and fertile.

Peninsular Plateau is the oldest landmass of India. General elevation is 600-1000 metres and slopes down to 500 metres in the north. The general slope of this plateau is from west to east. It consists of Igneous and Metamorphic rocks.

(a) Jhelum , Chenab, Ravi & Beas 

(b) A. Sind Sagar Doab 

B. Chaj Doab 

C. Rechna Doab 

D. Bari Doab 

E. Bist or Jullundur Doab

Iinter Migration: When people migrate from one state to another. e.g., W.B. to Maharashtra, UP to Tamil Nadu, etc.

Intra-State Migration: When people migrate within the same state. e.g., Kanpur to Varanasi, Ahmedabad to Vadodara , etc.

Inshore Fishing: Fisherman fishes only five to eight kms from Shore. Fishing is done by small boats which run on petrol shellfish and seaweed are also caught. 

Deep-Sea Fishing: It is done far from the shore in the deep sea. Fishing is done in large vessels. The trawlers and junks are diesel-powered with on-board refrigerating plants.

The two ways in which Cotton Industry in India is influenced by climatic conditions are: 

1. Cotton yam produced in a humid region is finer and more durable. 

2. Cotton threads do not easily break in humid climate.

The three ways in which radio and television are a useful means in mass communication are: 

1. They provide all sorts of useful information, news, and variety of entertainment almost reaching to the entire population. 

2. Radio and television both operate in multiple regional languages in order to cater to the entire population most efficiently and effectively. 

3. They are the cheapest and widely used medium of communication and the only source of entertainment and information in rural areas and remote places.

(a) Burning of coal leaves a large residue of ash which is a cause of environmental concern if disposal is not done properly. 

(b) The use of petroleum fuel causes pollution to the atmosphere. 

(c) The use of nuclear minerals may cause harmful radiation to environment if safe waste disposal is not done.

(i) A – Gujarat Industrial Region.

B – Hugli Industrial Region. 

(ii) 1. Region A: The Gujarat Industrial Region developed due to the presence of cotton growing tracts in the Gujarat plains. The availability of cheap land, cheap skilled labour and other advantages helped the cotton textile industry. The petrochemical industry has developed due to the availability of oil. 

2. Region B: The Hugli Industrial Region has developed as Hugli offered the best site for development of inland river port, and well connected by the Ganga and its tributaries. Besides navigable rivers, roads, and railways provided subsequent links to the great benefit of Kolkata port. Jute industry is the most important industry of this region.

Mumbai – Pune Industrial Region. 

Bengaluru – Tamil Nadu Industrial Region.

GIS is a system for capturing, storing, checking, integrating, manipulating, analyzing and displaying data, which are spatially in reference to the Earth. This is normally considered to involve a spatially reference computer database and appropriate application software.

(i) The rate at which work is done by a force is  

called the power i.e P = W/t

The S.I. unit of power is watt (w),

1 watt is defined as 1 Joule/second

(ii) Another unit of power is horse power (H.P) 1 horse power = 746 watt

Molecular mass of ethyl alcohol = 46 g

Mass of ethyl alcohol = 46 g

no. of moles of ethyl alcohol in sol. = \(\frac{46 g}{46 g}\) = 1 Molecular mass of H₂O = 18 g

no. of moles of H₂O in solution = \(\frac{18g}{18g}\) = 1 total 

no. of moles in solution = 1 + 1 = 2

Mole fraction of ethyl alcohol = \(\frac{1}{2}\) = 0.5

This is because in Frenkel defect no ions are missing from the crystal lattice site whereas, in case of Schottky defect, an equal number of positive and negative ions are missing from the crystal lattice, hence density decreases.

An organic weak acid is Formic acid.

(i) Red metal copper deposits at cathode and colourless odourless gas oxygen at Anode. 

(ii) The blue colour of copper sulphate solution soon fades.

(iii) At Cathode: Cu⁺⁺ + 2e^- ⟶ Cu

      At Anode : OH - e^- ⟶ OH

                        4 [OH]⟶ 2H₂O + O₂ ↑

(i) Red wire is used as phase wire

(ii) Green earth wire is connected to top of three pin plug.

1. The blue colour of the solution changes to white.

2. A gas evolved which has the smell of rotten eggs.

3. A yellow coloured explosive is formed.

4. Curdy white ppt. observed which is soluble in NH₄OH.

5. Reddish brown vapours of bromine are evolved.

This is because it takes place only at high temperature. If the reacting nuclei are at high temperature, then they will have sufficient energy to overcome coulombian force.

(i) Biodiversity: It is the degree of variation of life forms. 

(ii) Eutrophication: The process of accumulation of inorganic nutrients in an aquatic ecosystem. 

(iii) PAR : Photo synthetically Active Radiation is the wavelength of light available for photosynthesis.

(a) Semen will be without sperm 

Cutting of trees should be discouraged because if there were no green plants, all life on the earth would come to an end. Trees provides food and oxygen to all by the process of photosynthesis. Oxygen is the life supporting gas. They release water in form of vapours by transpiration process which helps in bringing rain so they also affect our climate.

When women have high level of androgens in blood or if there is an overgrowth of adrenal cortex in a mature woman, she develops certain male characteristics such as a beard, moustaches and deep male voice. This condition is known as adrenal virilism.

(i) Some women have facial hair like beard and moustache because of adrenal virilism, in which excess secretion of adrenal androgen takes place and causes this male effect in females. 

(ii) Cutting of tree should be discouraged because it would lead to less utilization of Co2 in photosynthesis due to which rise in Co2 will lead to greater retention of solar radiation in the atmosphere causing global warming. 

(iii) Since xerophytes grow in dry conditions where water is less, in order to reduce transpiration their leaves are modified into spines. 

(iv) In winter, there is no sweating and most of the excess water is eliminated from body in the form of urine. 

(v) It has to push the blood to the remotest parts of the body such as toes of the feet so the left ventricle of the heart has thicker wall.

The major achievement of Congress Ministries were : 

1. Reduction of the salaries of the ministers, 

2. Welfare scheme for the tribals, 

3. Jail reforms and, 

4. Declaration of Fundamental rights. 

Although the Congress formed ministries in different provinces, they actually failed to introduce land reforms. The Marxist writers highlight that the zamindars and landlords had influence on the Congress. Naturally, the Congress ministries did not want to alienate this class. On the other hand, in UP, most of the talukdars were Muslims and land reform would affect their interests and they might side with the league. Congress required the cooperation of all the sections including the landed aristocracy. Though the people had great expectations, the Congress ministries were not destined to rule for long. The Congress ministries resigned in November 1939, on the war issue.

In the Round Table Conference, it was taken for granted that the main communities, particularly, the Hindus and the Muslims, would be represented in the provincial ministries. But after the spectacular victory, the Congress did not accommodate any other group like Muslim League in any ministry. This became an important issue in UP when the Congress assumed the office. The Congress offered two seats to the Muslim league on certain conditions which the League rejected outrightly. The Muslim community felt that they had no political future as long as the Congress was in power. The Muslim League then accused the Congress of discrimination against the. minorities. 

The Muslim League then appointed a committee to collect information on the subject. The Report of the committee contained a long list of charges against the Congress. Thus, throughout the 27 months of Congress rule in provinces, the League carried on intense anti-Congress propaganda. The charges of the League included failure to prevent communal riots, ban on Bakra eid cow slaughter, singing of Vande Mataram on public occasions, encouragement of Hindi at the cost of Urdu and discrimination towards the Muslims. The Congress denied the charges of the Muslim League but the Muslims now started to think that the Congress was going to introduce a ‘Hindu Raj’ against the interest of the Muslims.

The Government mobilised all its forces to suppress the Quit India Movement of 1942. The authorities adopted some common methods like arrests, detentions, flogging, firing and punitive fines. The press was completely muzzled. By the end of 1943, throughout India, the official figures for arrests stood at 91,836. The number of people killed in police firing was 1060 by 1943. Apart from the Government figure, many more had died and became wounded by police torture. In Midnapore, the Government forces had burnt 31 Congress camps and 164 private houses. The Government even used aeroplanes to gun down demons-trators at least in 5 places in Bihar, Orissa and Bengal. The Government also collected punitive fines from the residents of the areas affected by the Quit India Movement.

In July 1945, the Labour Party came to power in Britain and hopes were raised for an early settlement of the Indian question. To solve the Indian deadlock, the British Prime Minister Clement Atlee, decided to send a special mission to India in March 1946, consisting of three British Cabinet members Patrick Lawrence, Stafford Cripps and A.V. Alexander. 

The objective was to find out ways and means for a negotiated settlement to transfer power to the Indian people. The Cabinet Mission held extensive discussion with the Congress, the Muslim League and other Indian political groups, but failed to reach any agreed settlement on the constitutional issue. Jinnah stood firm on his demand for Pakistan, while Congress vigorously opposed the two-nation theory of Jinnah. The Cabinet Mission also rejected the idea of two sovereign states because that would not solve the problem of the minorities.

Betty Friedan was an American writer, activist, and feminist who wrote the book The Feminine Mystique.

Violence erupted almost immediately, feeding into a spiral of reprisals and counter-reprisals. Israel was immediately attacked by neighboring Arab states.

Although Germany and Japan were defeated in the Second World War, the towering imperial power of Great Britain had also weakened. The Soviet Union and the USA emerged as the two great powers in the World. There was a common antiimperialist feeling all over the Asian colonies, including India. The Congress, though banned by the Government in 1942, had gained more popularity. Quit India was the main agenda of its campaigns. The threat of the movement was always hovering over the Government. People were in a mood to do or die. There were regular strikes protesting against unemployment, price-hike and food shortage. It looked as if the country was going to face another famine. Nehru declared “If people die of hunger, their deaths will be revenged.” 

The new struggle took the form of a massive movement against the trial of the INA soldiers, all over India. These soldiers were considered as war heroes. Hindus and Muslims united in protest against the seven years rigorous punishment passed on Abdul Rashid. Hundreds of people died while protesting against the trial. Finally, the Government had to quash the decision and remit the three INA officers. 

The explosive situation, which had developed in India after the war, continued till 1946. Hundreds of non-industrial workers, bank employees, post and telegraph workers participated in the agitation. Railway men also threatened to go on a strike. 

On February 18, 1946, the ratings of the Royal Indian Navy in Mumbai openly revolted against the miserable service conditions, poor meals, racial discrimination and arrogance of their British officers. Within 48 hours, the strike spread to naval bases all over the country. The Congress and League flags were hoisted on the ships. The mutineers, led by the naval strike committee, renamed the Royal Indian Navy as the Indian National Navy. 

The Government threatened them with serious consequences. When they returned to their respective ships and barracks on February 20, they found themselves cordoned off b y armed guards. A pitched-battle broke out between the British army, police and the RIN strikers. The cause of the ratings evoked tremendous support from the people. 

On February 22, the Mumbai working class, already agitated over ration cuts, called for a general strike. All textile mills, railway workshops and city transport closed down. Hindu and Muslims, students and workers also supported the naval mutiny. Violent street fighting and serious clashes took place on February 22 and 23. Karachi remained disturbed throughout the month of February. About 300 people were killed and 1500 injured in Mumbai on 22nd and 23rd February. 

However, the strike was called off on 23rd when Sardar Patel and Jinnah urged the mutineers to lay down their arms. While surrendering they declared, “We surrender to India and not to Britain.” The INA episode and the Naval Mutiny had bridged the gap between the people and armed forces and both found themselves on the common platform fighting for the cause of freedom. 

Though the Quit India Movement and the strikes were called off, they clearly revealed the strong determination of the Indian people to do away with the British rule. The British had never faced such an opposition before. They realised that it was no longer possible to hold India by force. In a letter to Churchill, Lord Wavell had pointed out, “It would be impossible to hold India by force after the war… it would in fact be wise to start negotiation before the end of the war.” 

The people in England were also fed up of the struggle. They wanted the Government to concentrate on internal reconstruction and problems created by the war. As a result, Winston Churchill who was determined to hold on to the British Colonies, was voted out of power and Labour party leader, Clement Attlee was elected as Prime Minister in 1945. It had become clear that the British would have to leave India sooner or later. 

Conclusion : Finally, the Quit India Movement and the stiff opposition to British rule by the people of India had created a strong public opinion in foreign countries in favour of India. America and China were specially influenced by the tide of this revolution. The American President, Roosevelt, wrote to the Chinese Prime Minister that the best policy for the English would be to grant independence to the people of India as soon as possible.

Provincial autonomy.

Following reasons were responsible for a change in the attitude of the British towards India after the World War II. 

1. The collapse of British imperial power can be traced directly to the impact of World War II. 

2. The catastrophic wars in Europe and Asia between 1940 and 1942, destroyed Britain’s financial and economic independence, which was the real foundation of it’s imperial system. 

3. It also erased the old balance of power on which the British security —at home and abroad—had largely depended. 

4. Although Britain was one of the victorious allies, the defeat of Germany had been mainly the work of Soviet and American power, while that of Japan had been almost entirely an American triumph. 

5. Britain had survived and recovered the territory that was lost during the war, but its prestige and authority, not to mention its wealth, had been severely reduced. 

6. The British found themselves locked into an imperial end game from which every exit was blocked except the trapdoor to oblivion.

The most important feature of the Government of India Act of 1935 was that it provided for provincial autonomy of British India with some restrictions.

The Janata Government failed because of the following reasons: 

1. The Janata Government began to wither as significant ideological and political divisions emerged. 

2. The party consisted of veteran socialists, trade unionists and pro-business leaders, making major economic reforms which were difficult to achieve without triggering a public divide. 

3. Socialists and secular Janata politicians shared an aversion to the Hindu nationalist agenda of the Rashtriya Swayam Sevak Sangh. 

4. The Government had failed to prove most of the allegations and obtained few convictions. 

5. Cases against Indira Gandhi had also stalled for lack of evidence, and her continued prosecution began to evoke sympathy for her from the Indian public and anger of her supporters. 

6. Through 1979, support for Morarji Desai had declined considerably due to worsening economic conditions as well as the emergence of allegations of nepotism and corruption involving members of his family. 

7. Desai also lost the support of the secular and socialist politicians in the party, who saw him as favouring the Hindu nationalist BJS. 

8. On 19 July 1979, Desai resigned from the Government and eventually retired to his home 

9. The broken health of Jayaprakash Narayan made it hard for him to remain politically active and act as a unifying influence, thereby his death in 1979 deprived the party of its most popular leader. 

10.Dissidents placed Charan Singh as the new prime minister in place of Desai. 

11.President Reddy appointed Charan Singh as the Prime Minister of a minority Government on the strength of 64 MPs, calling upon him to form a new Government and prove his majority. 

12.The departure of Desai and the BJS had considerably diminished Janata’s majority, and numerous Janata MPs refused to support Charan Singh. MPs who were loyal to Jagjivan Ram withdrew themselves from the Janata Party. 

13.Former allies such as the DMK, Shiromani Akali Dal and the Communist Party of India (Marxist) had distanced themselves from the Janata party. 

14.Desperately seeking enough support for a majority, even Charan Singh sought to negotiate with Congress (I), which refused. After three weeks Charan Singh resigned.

Following were the main proposals of the Cabinet Mission Plan.

1. There was to be a Union of India, embracing British India and the Indian states. 

2. The Union, that is, the federal centre, should have exclusive control of foreign affairs, defence and communications. 

3. Provinces were to have complete autonomy and were to exercise all powers except those vested in the centre. 

4. The provinces of British India were to form three groups, Group A comprising the Hindu majority provinces of Madras, Bombay, C. P, U. P., Bihar and Orissa, Group B comprising the Muslim majority provinces of Punjab, the North-West Frontier Province, Baluchistan and Sind and Group C consisting of Bengal and Assam. 

5. Each group was to settle its own constitution, the representatives of all of them together with the representatives of the Indian states who would join the Union were to meet in a Constituent Assembly to draft a constitution for the Union. 

6. The entire set-up may, if thought necessary will be revived after ten years or periodically every ten years.

Causes of the war : 

Vital British interest : The Suez Canal provided Britain with a shorter sea route to its empire and, as the 20th century dawned and oil grew in importance, it provided a short sea route to the oilfields of the Persian Gulf. Britain was, therefore, committed to protect the canal. 

The crisis builds : The Suez Crisis of 1956 has its roots in the post-war upsurge of nationalism in Egypt. In 1951, Nahas Pasha, leader of the recently-elected nationalist Wafd party revoked the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936. British threats to occupy Cairo prompted King Farouk of Egypt to dismiss Nahas Pasha, but in July 1952 Farouk was overthrown in a military coup and General Mohammed Neguib seized power in 1954, Colonel Gamel Abdul Nasser replaced General Neguib. He had three goals: to make Egypt independent by ending British occupation; to build up Egyptian forces for a successful attack on Israel; to improve Egypt’s economy by constructing a high dam at Aswan to irrigate the Nile valley. 

Appeasement fears : In February 1955, Anglo-Egyptian affairs were strained once more by Eden’s decision to deprive Nasser of promised British arms. In April, Eden succeeded Winston Churchill as the Prime Minister. 

Treaties and collusion : The end of the Second World War in 1945 had brought a period of rapid change. The creation of the state of Israel in 1948 was followed by the first Arab-Israeli War, and a renewed upsurge of Arab nationalism made the Middle-east a volatile region. The United States had emerged from World War II as a global super power and, as a former colony itself it was committed to overseeing the decolonization of the globe. 

Military action : On 29 October 1956, the Israeli attack was spearheaded by an airborne drop to seize control of the Mitla Pass. On 5 November, some three months and 10 days after Nasser had nationalized the canal, the Anglo-French assault on Suez was launched. It was preceded by an aerial bombardment, which grounded and destroyed the Egyptian Air Force. At midnight on 6 November, a cease-fire was called on the insistence of UN Secretary General Dag Hammarskjold. The AngloFrench forces had reached El Cap, just south of Port Said, but were not yet in control of the entire canal when they were stopped. Militarily, the operation was well on its way to being a great success. 

Britain, France and Israel to withdraw their troops from Egypt. In Britain too there had been widespread outrage. A United Nations peacekeeping force was sent in to supervise the ceasefire and to restore order. The Suez Canal was cleared and reopened, but Britain in particular found its standing with the US weakened and its influence ‘east of Suez’ diminished by the adventure.

The causes of the Indo-Pakistan war of 1971 were as follows: 

Differences due to languages – Urdu and Bengali : After Mr. Jinnah became the Governor general of Pakistan, he declared in 1948, ‘Urdu alone would be the state language and the lingua franca of the Pakistan state’. The Bengalis in East Pakistan (present Bangladesh) didn’t appreciate it. They launched an agitation that peaked in 1952. The Pakistan Government relented and granted it the official recognition in 1956. 

Political alienation : The East Pakistan was not treated and ruled well by the central Pakistan leadership. When military leaders began to rule the nation, they were even more one-sided with the West Pakistan and the alienation increased. Sheikh Mujibur Rehman, the leader of East Pakistan fought for the rights of East Pakistan. He came up with Six Points movement. It basically sought equal power for the East Pakistan on political, budgetary and military resources. The military leadership of West Pakistan didn’t heed it. Sheikh Mujibur Rehman and East Pakistan felt they were seeking more powers and autonomy. The military and West Pakistan saw it as an effort for separation. Mujibur Rehman was also arrested and imprisoned. 

1970 elections and the break point : In the 1970 elections, out of the total 300 seats, Mujibur Rehman’s Awami League came first with 160 seats, followed by Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto’s Pakistan People’s party winning 81 seats and other parties the remaining. The majority required was 151, and Awami League had won it. But the Pakistan military leadership and the West Pakistan political leadership combined to deny a legitimate. When the military establishment was dragging its feet, East Pakistan grew restive. In March 1971, Mujibur Rehman called for independence. The Pakistan President, Gen. Yahya Khan declared martial law in East Pakistan and ordered arrest of Mujibur Rehman. Then, the Pakistan military attacked East Pakistan and refugees flooded into India. Also, some of the East Pakistan forces, the Muktibahini had been trained by Indian armed forces and they attacked Pakistan military. The 1971 Bangladesh liberation war had begun. 

Following are the Consequences of Indo- Pakistan 1971 War: 

1. Creation of Bangladesh (Previously known as East Pakistan): Birth of a new nation. 

2. Myth of superiority of Islamic armies busted. 

3. Indo-Soviet Friendship. 

4. Military posture of Pakistan: With defeat of magnitude comparable to Stalingrad- Pakistan started covert aggression against India through militancy in Kashmir & Punjab. 

5. Bid to acquire Nuclear weapons. 

6. Signing of Shimla agreement in June 1972 for restoration of peace and order between the two states.