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Two problems of Indian agriculture are : 

(i) Seed: Good quality seeds are out of reach of the majority of farmers especially small and marginal farmers. To solve this problem the Government of India established National Seeds Corporation and State Farmers Corporation of India. High yielding variety programme was a major thrust plan to increase the production of food grains in the country.

(ii) Manures, Fertilizers and Biocides: Indian soils have been used for growing crops over thousands of years. This has led to depletion and exhaustion of soils resulting in their low productivity. Chemical fertilizers are costly and are often beyond the reach of the poor farmers so the problem of fertilizer availability problem is acute and complex. To solve this problem the government has given subsidy for using chemical fertilizers. In order to maintain the quality of the fertilizers, 52 fertilizers quality control labs have been set up in different parts of the country. Training institute is at Faridabad with its three regional centres at Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai.

(i) Roads in India are classified on the basis of their importance, maintenance and administration. 

(ii) 1. National Highways 

2. State Highways 

3. District Roadways 

4. Village Roads 

5. Border Roads

The two terminals of the East-West corridor are Silcher in Assam and Porbandar in Gujarat.

(i) Rice: Temperature-means monthly temperature of 24°C, with a range of 16°C32°C. Average Rainfall is about 150 cm. Deep fertile clayey or loamy soils are considered ideal for rice. Rice also needs ankle-deep water or flooded fields during the earlier part of its growing season.

(ii) Tea: The following are the conditions required for tea cultivation :

Temperature: 10°C-30°C

Rainfall: Average yearly rainfall of 2,000 mm. 

Altitude: Ground level between 600-2000 meters above sea level. 

Soil: Soil with ph 4.5 to 5 and less and soil with excellent drainage.

(i) Mica: Andhra Pradesh 

Centre: Nellore 

(ii) Petroleum : Gujarat 

Centre: Ankleshwar

Two factors influencing the location of Sugar industry in Maharashtra are : 

(i) Maharashtra has 162 days of crushing period, longer than other states. 

(ii) Sugar mills are integrated in a cooperative system and use bagasse as fuel instead of coal. This state has the advantage of higher recovery rate of 11.6%.

(a) Nellore district. 

(b) Keonjhar or Mayurbhanj districts.

Two factors are : 

1. Kerala has indented coast. So, large numbers of fishing ports have developed. 

2. 85% of India’s total processing facilities like freezing, ice-making, cold storage, canning, etc., are available in Kerala only.

Problems affecting the fishing industry in Bangladesh : 

1. Severe tropical cyclones which frequently originate in the Bay of Bengal pose a serious threat to fishermen. 

2. The present fish catch is still on a small scale, the boats are small and the methods used for fishing are traditional and inefficient.

(i) Western Rajasthan is a desert because it lies ‘ in the rain shadow area of the Aravalli Hills in the Bay of Bengal branch of the southwest monsoons coming from the east. These winds when strike the Garo Khasi Hills, are diverted west and northwest along the Ganga plain. As these winds advances, imparting rain, they become less humid and are dry when they reach the Indus Basin in the extreme northwest. 

(ii) The two Himalayan drainage systems of India are: 

1. The Indus drainage system. 

2. The Ganga drainage system.

India has tropical climate wherein the fish cannot be preserved for a long period. Huge expenses are incurred on refrigeration and deep-freezing as a result the price of the fish in the market increases. There are not many gulfs, bays, estuaries and backwaters unlike Norway as such there is scarcity of fishing grounds.

(i) Metallic Minerals

1. Metallic minerals are those which upon melting become metals and are ductile & malleable. 

2. These metals are with igneous associated with rocks and are sedimentary rocks usually hard. and are not usually hard.

Non-Metallic Mineral

1. Non-metallic minerals are those which do not contain metals and hence are non-ductile and non-malleable. 

2. Non-metallic minerals are associated

(ii) Leading state for Iron ore production in India is Odisha.

(i) Economically backward areas like Western Rajasthan lacks railways transport due to sandy tracks where construction is difficult and expensive. 

(ii) Northern plains have dense network of roads and railway because of high population density and the plain leveled lands. 

(iii) Pipelines are the most convenient, economical mode of transporting petroleum as it can be laid through difficult terrains as well as underwater. It involves low energy consumption and is eco-friendly.

Factors affecting inland waterways in India are : 

1. The rivers and canals do not have a regular flow of sufficient water. 

2. Rivers of South India are seasonal and are not much suited for navigation due to the presence of waterfalls, cataracts and sharp bends in their course. 

3. Silting of river beds reduces the depth of water and creates problems for navigation. Desilting of river beds is a way costlier affair.

Three factors affecting inland water transport are : 

1. The rivers and canals should have regular flow of sufficient water. 

2. Due to silting of river bed, the depth of water is reduced and hence creates problem for navigation. Also, desilting of river bed is costly. 

3. If in the river course there are waterfalls and sharp bends there is obstruction in the development of waterways.

(a) Yes, it is Coastal: The annual range of temperature is only 6°C. The area is influe- need by the moderating influence of the sea. 

(b) The Arabian sea branch of south-west monsoon.

According to the plate tectonic theory, the Himalayan ranges were formed when the Indian plate was driven northwards and pushed beneath the Eurasian plate. With the advance of the Indian plate towards the north, the Tethys started contracting about 65 to 70 million years ago. About 30 to 60 million years ago, the two plates came closer and Tethys sea crust began to fracture into thrust edges. About 20 to 30 million years ago, the Himalayan ranges started emerging.

Hints: 

• waiting at ATM booth. Focus Bank, three/four persons 

• a white car drew up, four men came out. faces covered

• rushed into the bank, closed main gate, took out their guns 

• warned the staff, pointing guns, collected cash from the teller 

• security guard, fell down, pretended to haw heartache 

• unseen by others, sent message on mobile, police came 

• decoits left the cash, ran from the back door, failed to loot the bank

Unitary Government: Power is almost entirely centralized in a national Government. Power devolves to local Governments only for the sake of convenience (such as garbage collection times or issuing parking tickets). Any local Governments that exists hold power only with permission from the national Government, and they cannot ever conflict with national policy. Thus, in the UK, the counties into which England is divided have their own bureaucracies and regulations, but only in areas where the national Parliament has given them permission to set up those systems. Unlike a Federal system, there are no reserved powers for states or provinces.

Local power may be granted by the national legislature, but it can be modified or revoked. Unitary nation-states might set up regional Governments, but only to handle regulations that might be too burdensome to control entirely from a nationwide bureaucracy. Unitary Governments are relatively common.

Federal Government: The central (or federal) Government controls more trade policy, and makes decisions about policy areas that involve interactions between states (such as highway systems). It usually has the power to tax independently of the states and to control the money supply. A Federal Government also usually has its own mechanisms for enforcement. For example, in the USA, the FBI is the primary agency for investigating Federal crimes and crimes that occur between or among multiple states.

The Royal Canadian Mounted Police have a similar function in Canada. Federal systems (or federations) are more common than Confederal Governments today. The USA, Germany and Canada are Federal, and Russia is a rather centralized federation. Federal systems differ in how much power they give to the Federal, as opposed to the regional Governments, but they are all alike in that some powers are reserved at each level of Government in a balancing act.

The unitary features of Indian federal state are : 

• Strong center. 

• Absence of separate constitution for states.

The classification of states is done on the basis of relations between the Center and State government. In case of Unitary government, all powers are vested with the Central government. Whereas in case of the federal government, the power is divided between the Center and the State by a Constitution.

The six merits under Indian Constitution of liberal democracy are as follows : 

It offers the right to vote to all the adult citizens : In a democratic country all the citizens above 18 years can elect their representatives through electoral process. They can also participate in decision-making process on various issues related to politics, economy and society. Even the President of the country who is responsible for taking the major decisions is also indirectly elected by the people.

It offers the opportunity to bring change : The elected officials can’t stay in power for a long time. In case, the perfor-mance of the officials is not satisfactory, people can bring about a change by not supporting them.

It offers opportunity for the representation to people : The elected leaders are people’s representative. People have the right to elect the candidate whom they consider as capable.

It promotes participation of the people : A democratic government allows people to participate in the decision-making process. Thus, it helps in inculcating a sense of belongingness to the people. As the citizens have freedom to vote, they can consider themselves as a significant part of the society. Moreover, it also enables the citizens to make a difference in the society they are living through the electoral process.

It helps in promoting equality : All the citizens are considered equal in front of law and every citizen above 18 years has a right to vote regardless of gender, caste or creed.

It enables people to give voice to their issues : People have freedom to carry rallies to hold assemblies to raise their issues. In case the citizens are not happy with the working of the government or against some policy of the government can express their views openly against it.

A unitary form of government is one wherein all the powers are concentrated in the hands of the central government. The central government delegates authority to local units which are created by it. These local units are referred as local governments. Countries like England, France, and Japan have Unitary Governments. Unitary Governments are suitable for smaller countries.

K. C. Where describes the federal principle as the method of divided power so that the general and regional governments are each within a sphere co-ordinate and independent.

Federalism is the theory of federal political order, wherein final authority is divided between sub-units and a center. Unlike a unitary state, sovereignty is constitutionally split at two tiers. Unlike Unitary form, in the Federal system the Constitution has absolute supremacy. There is also devolution of powers between the central government and state governments. Further an independent judiciary is a key feature of Federalism. The Indian system is relatively federal in nature with states enjoying reasonable powers on a number of subjects like law and order. The Judiciary in India too is independent and often gives verdicts which go against the governments.

(i) The essential features of a written constitution and an unwritten constitution are as follows:

(1) Written Constitution:

• A written constitution means a constituion written in the form of a book or a series of documents combined in the form of a book.

• It provides for a definite design of Government institutions, their organizations, powers, functions and inter-relationships. 

• It is consciously planned and enacted constitution which is formulated and adopted by a constituent assembly or a council or convention or a legislature.

(2) Unwritten Constitution: 

• An unwritten constitution means a constitution is not in the written form of a book and it is not drafted or enacted by a constituent assembly. 

• The Government is organised and it functions in accordance with the several well settled laws and several unwritten conventions. 

• The people know their constitution and they accept and obey it, but they do not possess it in the written form.

(ii) Constitutions are classified as written and unwritten. Such a classification is, however, of little practical importance. As Wheare observes, “we cannot agree that there is any country, least of all, the United Kingdom, which has a system of government embodied solely in written rules or solely in unwritten rules.” The distinction between written and unwritten constitution is illusory. The bulk of the rules regulating the fundamental political institutions of a country may be written down in a document or documents. The written constitutions are framed by a representative body called, Constituent Assembly. 

For example, the USA and India have a written constitutional document. On the other hand, the constitution of a country is said to be unwritten, when most of the rules governing its fundamental political institutions are found in customs, usages and conventions, as is the case in U.K.

It follows therefore, that constitutions can hardly be classified into written and unwritten types in absolute term. The distinction is really a superfluous one.

Head of State Real Executive : In the presidential system there is only one chief of the executive, and that is real. The chief of state is not merely the titular executive but he is the real executive and actually exercises the powers which the constitution and law confer on him.

Real Executive Elected by People : The executive is not hereditary or nominated. He is elected by the people. The President of the United States is elected indirectly by the people through an electoral college.

Fixed Tenure : The executive has a fixed tenure. For example, the President of the USA is elected for a term of four years. He cannot be removed from office before the expiration of his term.

Executive Not Member of Legislature: The executive in the presidential system is not a member of the legislature. The President of the USA is neither a member of any of the chambers of congress, nor is he present in the legislature to introduce and pilot legislative measures. Here the principle of separation of powers is followed.

Executive Not Responsible to Legislature: In the presidential system, the executive is not responsible to the legislature. His tenure does not depend on the wishes of the legislature. His term of office, is fixed and he cannot be removed before its expiration. The executive is independent of the legislature. The legislature is not empowered to control and direct the executive.

Legislature cannot be Dissolved before Expiry of its Term: Dissolution of legislature is not possible in presidential system. For example, in USA the President is not empowered to dissolve any of the chambers of Congress before the expiration of its term.

Merits of Presidential Form of Government : 

It guarantees stable government : In a Presidential form of government, the government becomes stable, because the President is elected for a fixed tenure and he cannot be removed from his office through a vote of no¬confidence. He can only be removed from his office through the process of impeachment, in case he or she violates the constitution.

Such system is most suitable for emergencies : In a Presidential form of government, real powers of the government rest with the President. During a War or any other emergency, after consulting his or her administrators, the President can take a number of decisions independently. In the case of US, during war and emergency, the Congress also delegates its numerous powers to the President. Thus President in the US can be authoritative while dealing with eme-gencies as during the World Wars.

Efficiency in administration : As the President is empowered to appoint administrative heads on the basis of ability rather than political affiliation they are responsible to the President and not to the parliament. This ensures administrative efficiency.

Less influence of political parties : Compared to the Parliamentary government there is less influence of political parties in this system. This ensures less dependence on the Parliament for execution of functions.

Strong Executive : Executive is independent of day-to-day interference of legislature, hence forms a stronger organ of functioning.

Expert Ministers : A Presidential form of government is government by professionals and experts.

Merits: 

• It is a source of strong, stable and all-powerful government. 

• It ensures a single uniform administration for the whole of the state. 

• The system deserves special praise for its simplicity and less expensiveness. 

• The administration of a unitary state is flexible and can easily adapt itself to the changing social needs and environment because the central government can amend the constitution as and when required.

• This system is very suitable for small countries because it establishes organization and unity after ending all differences. 

• It is very suitable for meeting emergencies because, being an all-powerful government, the central government can take all necessary decisions quickly and implement them with full force.

Demerits: 

The unitary state provides for the creation of an all-powerful central government with full centralization of powers. It involves a possibility for central despotism over local areas.

The central government often behaves inefficiently because of being overloaded with all the work. It often finds itself not fully capable of meeting the pressure of work resulting from the social economic cultural functions that it has to perform as an agent of the modem welfare state.’

A unitary government, because of being located at the centre and faced with pressing national problems, very often fails to satisfy local needs.

The unitary system is suitable only for small and homogeneous states. For big states or states with racial, linguistic, cultural, religious and regional diversities, a federal system alone can be suitable.

A unitary government is more bureaucratic. The existence of a single political executive and legislature for the whole state makes way for the dominance of the administration by the bureaucracy.

It kills local initiative. It further discourages popular interest in public affairs.

Merits: 

1. It is a stable government in which the tenures of the executive and legislature are fixed. 

2. It is a strong government because of the fact that the executive is independent of day to day interferences by the Legislature and because the President has the power to take all decisions. 

3. There is continuity in governmental policies because the tenure of the executive is definite and fixed. 

4. It makes possible a government involving professionals and experts because the cabinet is constituted by the President strictly on merit. 

5. It keeps contained the party politics to the Legislative sphere. 

6. Because of being a strong executive, it is more conducive to the preservation of unity and integrity of the nation.

Demerits: 

1. It depends upon the qualities of the single person who becomes the President. 

2. The President can behave arbitrarily because he wields a large amount of power both as the head of state as well as of the Government. 

3. Executive is not responsible before the Legislature. 

4. Due to separation of powers, there are frequent deadlocks between the legislature and executive. 

5. These are a source of inefficiency and mutual mud-slinging. 

6. Fixed tenure makes the executive rigid and irresponsible in approach.

7. It is not free from evils of party system.

Two demerits of canal irrigation are : 

1. Farmers tend to flood their fields with water with the intention of getting a bumper crop. They also wish to get the maximum benefit from the money they have spent to use the facility of canal irrigation.

2. Marshy areas near canals become breeding grounds for mosquitoes.

The distinction between the rigid and flexible constitutions is based on the distinction between the law-making procedure and constitution amendment procedure. If constitution amendment procedure is distinct and difficult in comparison to law-making procedure, the constitution is said to be rigid, as in U.S.A. On the other hand, if a country follows the same procedure for lawmaking and constitution amendment, it is said to be a flexible constitution, as is the case in U.K.

Two Merits of Flexible Constitution : 

The two merits of flexible constitution are : 

1. The flexible constitution is suitable to emergency conditions as it can be easily changed. 

2. It keeps pace with the changing conditions and adapts to new situations.

Two Demerits of Flexible Constitution: A flexible constitution is a source of inconsistency in governance, as it enables the government in power to give it desired content and directions.

Flexible constitution is not suitable in a federal polity because in a federation, there is a division of power between the union and states. A rigid constitution is required to maintain this division of power.

Merits of FPTP System: First Past The Post, like other plurality/majority electoral systems, is defended primarily on the grounds of simplicity and its tendency to produce winners who are representatives beholden to defined geographic areas and governability.

The most often cited advantages of FPTP system are:

It provides a clear-cut choice for voters between two main parties. The inbuilt disadvantages faced by third and fragmented minority parties under FPTP in many cases cause the party system to gravitate towards a party of the ‘left’ and a party of the ‘right’, alternating in power. Third parties often wither away and almost never reach a level of popular support above which their national vote yields a comparable percentage of seats in the legislature.

It gives rise to single-party governments. The ‘seat bonuses’ for the largest party common under FPTP (e.g., where one party wins 45 percent of the national vote but 55 percent of the seats) mean that coalition governments are the exception rather than the rule. This state of affairs is praised for providing cabinets which are not shackled by the restraints of having to bargain with a minority coalition partner.

It promotes a link between constituents and their representatives, as it produces a legislature made up of representatives of geographical areas. Elected members represent defined areas of cities, towns or regions rather than just party labels. Some analysts have argued that this ‘geographic accountability’ is particularly important in agrarian societies and in developing countries.

Demerits: 

However, FPTP is frequently criticized for a number of reasons: It excludes smaller parties from ‘fair’ representation, in the sense that if a party which wins approximately, say, 10 percent of the votes should win approximately 10 percent of the legislative seats. In the 1993 federal election in Canada, the Progressive Conservatives won 16 percent of the votes but only 0.7 percent of the seats and in the 1998 general election in Lesotho, the Basotho National Party won 24 percent of the votes but only 1 percent of the seats. This is a pattern which is repeated time and time again under FPTP.

It leaves a large number of wasted votes which do not go towards the election of any candidate. This can be particularly dangerous if combined with regional freedoms, because minority party supporters in the region may begin to feel that they have no realistic hope of ever electing a candidate of their choice. It can also be dangerous where alienation from the political system increases the likelihood that extremists will be able to mobilize anti-system movements.

It can cause vote-splitting. Where two similar parties or candidates compete under FPTP, the vote of their potential supporters is often split between them, thus allowing a less popular party or candidate to win the seat.

Filling vacancies from within the Organisation have some merits as well as demerits . Merits of Internal Sources of Recruitment: 

The following are the advantages of internal sources of recruitment: 

• Simple and Economical: The process of selection and placement becomes very simple and economical. 

• No need of Training: There is no need of induction training. 

• Motivation: Motivates the employees to improve their performance. 

• Promotional Avenues: Promotional avenues lead to establishment of industrial peace. 

Demerits of Internal Sources of Recruitment: 

Internal sources of recruitment suffers from the following demerits : 

• Fresh and more Talented Stock: The scope for the entrance of fresh and more talented stock is reduced. 

• Promotion: Surety of promotion makes the employees lazy. 

• Lack of Competition: It reduces the feeling of competition among the employees. 

• Frequent Transfers: Productivity of an organisation is also affected by frequent transfers.

(a) Coffee plant requires hot and humid climate with 15°C to 30°C and 150-200 cm rainfall. Frost is injurious to the growth of coffee plants. 

(b) Karnataka.

Two demerits of tube well irrigation are : 

1. Wells dry up during the dry summers and fail to provide water. 

2. As tube wells can draw out larger quantities of water, largescale depletion of ground Water takes place, the groundwater level or the water table goes down.

(a) Typical characteristic feature of Tropical Deciduous forests are : 

1. These forests are found in areas receiving 100 – 200 cm of annual rainfall. 

2. These trees shed their leaves in the beginning of summer season due to shortage of water. 

3. Although the trees shed their leaves in summer, each species has its own time. As a result, the forests never look absolutely bare at any time. These forests are quite dense with an undergrowth of creepers.

(b) Sal and Teak.

Regular pruning is done to keep the shrubs at the required height of 1 m to facilitate plucking and the growth of new shoots with softer leaves.

1. Pruning is done to keep the shrub at a convenient height of about 40 to 50 cm. It encourages the growth of new shoots with softer leaves. 

2. Roasting is done to improve the flavour and taste of coffee. Roasting gives brown colour and pleasing aroma. 

3. Millets need rainfall ranging between 50 cm – 120 cm, that is, they do not need much rainfall. Because of this feature, millets are called ‘DRY’ crops.

(i) Inside Scrotum 

(ii) Between malleus and stapes. 

(iii) In the stroma (matrix) of chloroplast 

(iv) Cavity between amnion and embryo 

(v) Between two cerebral hemispheres.

(i) On the margins of leaves of some plants. 

(ii) In the endolymph present in the middle dual of cochlea. 

(iii) Between left amide and left ventricle 

(iv) At the base of midbrain. 

(v) Around the embryo in the uterus.

(i) At the tip and margins of leaves.

(ii) In the endolymph present in the middle canal of cochlea.

(iii) Between the opening of left auricle and left ventricle.

(iv) At the base of brain.

(v) Around the embryo in the uterus.

(i) Thylakoids: In the grana of the chloroplast in plant cells. 

(ii) Organ of Corti: In the endolymph present in the middle concentric layer of cochlea in the internal ear. 

(iii) Lenticels: On the older stem of plants. 

(iv) Bicuspid value: Between the left auricle and left ventricle. 

(v) Loop of Henle: In the medulla part of kidney.

Lenticels : Loose aggregration of cells in the bark of the stems and roots of certain plants for gaseous exchange.

Present in the cochlea of internal ear.

Present in between the left auricle and left ventricle.

Present in the epidermis of the stems of woody plants.

(i) Albinism : It is caused by the absence of the enzyme tyrosinase which is essential for the synthesis of the pigment from dihydroxyphenyalanine. The gene for albinism (a) does not produce the enzyme tyrosinase but its normal allele (A) does. Thus, only homozygous individual (aa) is affected by this disease. Albinos (individuals with albinism) lack dark pigment melanin in the skin, hair and iris. Although albinos have poor vision yet they lead normal life. 

(ii) Sickle cell anaemia is an autosomal hereditary disorder due to a mutation of single nitrogen base. It results the formation of an abnormal haemoglobin called haemoglobin S (Hb^s). In this, only one amino acid-6th amino acid of β-chain glutamic acid is replaced by valine. The erythrocytes become sickle shaped under oxygen deficiency as during strenous exercise and at high altitudes. They cannot pass through narrow capillaries. They clog blood capillaries. Blood circulation and oxygen supply is disturbed. Spleen and brain get damaged. Patient feels acute weakness. Homozygotes (Hb^s / Hb^s) usually die before reaching maturity.

(i) Ion Exchange Chromatography: It is based on reversible exchange of ions in solution with ions electrostatically bound to some sort of insoluble support medium. Separation is obtained since different molecules have different degree of interaction with ion exchanger due to difference in their charges, charge densities and distribution of charge on their surface. 

(ii) Partition Chromatography: Partition chromatography is the process of separation whereby the components of the mixture get distributed into two liquid phases due to differences in partition coefficients during the flow of mobile phase in the chromatography column. Here, the molecules get preferential separation in between two phases, i.e., both stationary phase and mobile phase are liquid in nature. So molecules get dispersed into either phases preferentially. Polar molecules get partitioned into polar phase and vice-versa. This mode of partition chromatography applies to liquid-liquid, liquid-gas chromatography and not to solid-gas chromatography. Because partition is the phenomenon in between a liquid and liquid or liquid and gas or gas and gas. But not in solid involvement.

(i) Sickle cell anaemia : It is an autosomal hereditary disorder due to a mutation of single nitrogen base. It results in the formation of an abnormal haemoglobin called haemoglobin S (Hbs). In this, only one amino acid-6th amino acid of β-chain glutamic acid is replaced by valine. The erythrocytes become sickle shaped under oxygen deficiency as during strenous exercise and at high altitudes. They cannot pass through narrow capillaries. They clog blood capillaries. Blood circulation and oxygen supply is disturbed. Spleen and brain get damaged. Patient feels acute weakness. Homozygotes (Hbs / Hbs) usually die before reaching maturity. 

(ii) Alkaptonuria: This was one of the first metabolic diseases described by Garrod in 1908. It is an inherited metabolic disorder produced due to deficiency of an oxidase enzyme required for breakdown of homogentisic acid (acid called alcapton, hence, alkaptonuria is also written as alcaptonuria.) Lack of the enzyme is due to the absence of the normal form of gene that controls the synthesis of the enzyme. Hence, homogentisic acid then accumulates in the tissues and is also excreted in the urine. The most commonly affected tissues are cartilages, capsules of joints, ligaments and tendons. The urine of these patients if allowed to stand for some hours in air, turns black due to oxidation of homogentisic acid.

(i) Reducing sugar possess a free aldehyde (–CHO) and ketone (–C = 0) group while non-reducing have no free aldehyde and ketone group. 

(ii) Plants produced from pollen grains or egg cells of ovules are called haploid plants. Plants produced from endosperm are called triploid plants. 

(iii) Lac-operon is under negative gene control. Trp-operon is under positive gene control. 

(iv) Blunt ends : Some restriction enzymes cut both the strands of a DNA molecule at the same site so that the resulting termini or ends have blunt or flush ends in which the two strands end at the same point.

Sticky ends : Most of the restriction enzymes produce staggered cuts in which the two strands of DNA double helix are cleaved at different locations producing two protuding end (3′ or 5′) called cohesive or sticky ends. They readily pair with each other under annealing conditions. When fragments generated by a single restriction enzyme from different DNA are mixed they join together due to their sticky’ ends. 

(v) Spectroscopy is the study of the interaction between matter and electromagnetic radiation. Colorimetry involves the estimation of the concentration of a colored substance in a solution by comparing the intensity’ or depth of its color with that of a solution having known concentration of the substance while passing visible light of the same intensity through both the solutions.