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An overdraft allows the individual to continue withdrawing money even if the account has no funds in it or not enough to cover the withdrawal. Basically, overdraft means that the bank allows customers to borrow a set amount of money.

Money supply refers to the amount of money held by the public in an economy at any given time. Increased money supply results in increased purchasing power thereby increasing the aggregate demand, which in turn increases the prices of the goods and services.

It is the sum total of marginal utilities derived from the consumption of different units of a commodity.

TU_n = U₁ + U₂ + ….+ U_n

Marginal utility is the net addition made to total utility by the consumption of an additional unit.

Mun = TU_n – TU_n-1

When the price of a commodity falls, the consumer can buy a larger amount of the commodity with his given money income. Or, he can buy the same amount of the commodity as before and at the same time he would be able to save some money. In other words, a fall in the price of the commodity results in an increase in real income i.e. purchasing power of the given money income increases.

A monopolist may charge different prices for his product from different sets of consumers at the same time. It is known as Price Discrimination.

(i)  Pituitary gland

(2)  Thyroid gland

(3)  Adrenal gland 

(4)  Pancreas

(ii)  Adenohypophysis and neurohypophysis.

(iii)  Two hormones secreted by adneohypophysis : Somatotrophoc hormone and follicle stimulating hormone.

Two hormones secreted by neurohypophysis : Oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

(iv)  Part 2, i.e.,  Thyroid gland

(v)  Myxoedema

Let the first three terms of an A.P. be a – d, a and a + d. 

According to the statement, we have 

a – d + a + a + d = 42 

3a = 42 

a = 14 

Now,(a – d)(a + d) = 52 

a² – d² = 52 

14² – d² = 52 

⇒ d² = 196 – 52 = 144 

⇒ d = ± 12 

Hence, the first term is 14 and common difference is ± 12.

Here, scale factor (k) = 1/30

(i) Height of the model = k(Actual height of the building) 

⇒ 80 cm = 1/30 (Actual height of the building) 

⇒ Actual height of the building = 30 × 80 = 2400 cm 

(ii) Volume of the tank at the top of the model 

= k³(Actual volume of the tank) 

⇒ Volume of the tank at the top of the model

= (1/30)³ x 27 m³ = 0.001 m³

Roots are equal 

b² - 4ac = 0

Given equation px² - 4x + 3 = 0 

Compare with ax² + bx + c = 0, we get

a = p, b = - 4, c = 3

16 = 4.p.3

p = 16/12 = 4/3 

(i) Li < Na < K< Rb < Cs 

(ii )Na > Mg > Si > S > Cl

(iii) K< Na < Si < S < Cl 

(iv) I < Br < F< Cl

1. Li < Na < K < Rb < Cs 

2. Na > Mg > Si > S > Cl 

3. K < Na < Si < S < Cl 

4. I < Br < F < Cl

(i) Empirical formula

(ii) Acid

(i) Pb < Zn < Ca < K

(According to the position in reactivity series)

(ii) Na¹⁺ < Mg²⁺ < H¹⁺ < Cu²⁺

(According to electrochemical series of metals)

(i) Electronegativity

(ii) Calcination

(iii) Non-polar covalent bond

1. Electron affinity 

2. Froth Floatation Method (concentration of ore) 

3. Nickel 

4. Addition reaction 

5. Valence electron

This is because of high specific latent heat of fusion of ice (equal to 336000 J/kg). So to freeze water, a large quantity of heat has to be taken out from water to freeze it.

(i) The energy required to remove an electron from a neutral isolated gaseous atom and convert it into a positively charged gaseous ion is called ionisation potential. 

(ii) The compound that does not have a lone pair of electron is carbon tetrachloride.

(iii) When a metallic oxide is dissolved in water, the solution formed has a high concentration of OH^- ions. 

(iv) Potassium sulphite on reacting with hydrochloric acid releases SO₂ gas. 

(v) The compound formed when ethene reacts with hydrogen is C₂H₆.

(i) ionisation potential 

(ii) carbon tetrachloride 

(iii) OH^– 

(iv) SO₂ 

(v) C₂H₆

(i) dehydration

(ii) sodium hydrogen sulphate

(iii) nitrogen trichioride

(iv) alkanes

(v) sodium

1. Reducing agents, donors 

2. High 

3. Alkaline 

4. AgCl 

5. Hydrogenation

1. Reducing agents, donors

2. High 

3. Alkaline 

4. AgCl 

5. Hydrogenation

CRR is the certain percentage of deposits accepted by Commercial Banks which they are required by law to keep with Central Bank in the form of cash reserves. Whereas, Statutory Liquidity Ratio refers to a fixed percentage of the assets of the Commercial Bank which they are required by law to keep with themselves in the form of cash or other liquid assets.

(i) Buying and selling of government securities in the market is known as open market operations.

(ii) Open market operations have an impact on the lending capacity of the banks. 

(iii) It is an important means of controlling the money supply. 

(iv) During inflation or excess demand situation the main motive of the Central Bank is to reduce the money supply. To suck excess liquidity from the market the Central Bank sells bonds, government securities and treasury bills. 

(v) Due to low money supply, there is a fall in the volume of investment, income and employment resulting in lower demand. 

(vi) During deflation, the main motive of the Central bank is to increase the money supply and to increase the money supply the Central Bank buys bonds, government securities and treasury bills.

Two agency functions of a Commercial Bank: 

1. Collection and Making payments for credit Instruments—The bank collects the payment of the bills of exchange, promissory notes, cheques, etc. on behalf of its customers. 

2. Collection of Dividend—The bank collects the dividends, and interests on shares and debentures as per instructions of its customers.

The two agency functions/services of a commercial bank are: 

1. Collecting Receipts: Banks collect amount of cheques, bills, promissory notes and hundies on behalf of their customers. 

2. Trustees and Executors: Commercial banks act as trustees and executors for their customers.

(a) For: Yes, vestibule training is better than on-the-job training, because: 

1. This training method helps the trainees to overcome initial nervousness before working on the actual job. Trainees get accustomed to the work routine whereas, on-the-job training method gets difficult for the trainees because in the course of training, employees may cause damage to expensive equipments and rate of accidents may increase. 

2. Vestibule training helps the trainees to get specialised in their skills under expert trainers and special instructors. 

(b) Against: Skimming pricing policy is not ideal for introducing a product in the FMCG sector, because: 

1. In FMCG sector, the goods are sold at a low price for quick sales, but in skimming pricing, the initial price of the goods are very high. 

2. In FMCG sector, the aim is not to ‘sell to classes’ who don’t care how much they pay for a novel product, but the price strategy, skimming pricing strategy follows this aim which is not ideal for any product to be introduced in FMCG sector. 

(c) Against: Rather closing stock is valued at market price or at cost, whichever is less. This rule is based on the principle of conservatism which states that probably losses are taken into account, but not the probable gains. It is also necessary to be careful while valuing closing stock correctly. Otherwise gross profit, thus ascertained, would not be correct one. 

(d) For: Yes, all membership fees collected by a non-trading concern should not be entered in the asset side of the Balance Sheet because: 

1. This is an income reported in the income and expenditure account. 

2. This is a revenue income but not a capital income. 

(e) For: Yes, abnormal costs are not recorded as a part of production costs, because: 

1. It is cost which is not normally incurred at a given level of output in the conditions in which that level of output is normally attained. 

2. Abnormal cost is charged to profit and loss account.

(i) To provide medium and long term assistance to industrial concerns for: 

• setting up of new industrial undertakings. 

• expansion on diversification of existing concerns. 

• modernization and renovation of existing concerns. 

• meeting working capital requirements. 

• meeting existing liabilities.

(ii) To grant loans to industrial concerns repayable within 25 years. 

(iii) To underwrite shares stocks, bonds etc. of the industrial enterprise to be disposed of within 7 years. 

(iv) To subscribe directly to the shares and debentures of public limited companies.

(a) ‘Marketing-Oriented Stage’: A company philosophy focused on discovering and meeting the needs and desires of its customers through its product mix. Market-oriented stage works in reverse, attempting to tailor products to meet the demands of customers. In essence, market-orientation can be thought of as a coordinated marketing campaign. 

(b) The two effects of crossing a cheque are: 

1. Crossing cheques provides a protection or safeguard against loss to the drawe by securing payment through a bank. 

2. It prevents fraudulent encashment. 

(c) Moral Suasion: Often termed simply ‘suasion’ it has been used to persuade banks and other financial institutions to keep to official guidelines. Under this method, central bank requests and persuades the commercial banks not to grant credit for speculative and non-essential activities. It is an informal and non- statutory method. 

(d) Advertising: Advertising consists of all the activities involved in presenting to a group a non-personal, oral, visual, openly sponsored message regarding a product, service or idea; this message called an advertisement, is disseminated through One or more media and is paid for by the identificed sponsor. It is a non-personal presentation and promotion of ideas, goods or services. 

(e) Nuclear power as a form of energy: Advantage: The great advantage of using nuclear energy is the ratio of the amount of fuel used and the energy obtained. This also translates into savings in transport, water etc. 

Disadvantage: One of the main drawbacks is the generation of nuclear waste and the difficulty to manage them as they take many years to lose its radioactivity and dangerous.

Two differences between Production oriented stage and the product oriented stage are:

Product advertising is the art of building and maintaining product awareness with potential buyers. A good product advertising educates potential customers on why they need the product, how it is used and the benefits derived from its use. A successful program also tells the consumer how the product is better than similar offerings by competitors. 

Informative advertising is often used when launching a new product or for an updated product. The objective is to develop initial demand for a good, service organization or cause. It is used when a new product is put in the market on when an old product has been re-launched or updated. Informative advertising will tell the consumer and marketplace about the product, explain how it works, provide pricing and product information and should build awareness for the product as well as the company.

Government relations with employees specifically focus on how the employees of an organization interact with the government. In fact, employees interact with their organization through various branches and officials of the organization and in turn, the organization interacts with the government. This is the area of public relations that helps build relationships and positive interactions between an organization and government officials. 

Government relations rely heavily on communicating about regulatory issues, oneon-one conversations with government representatives and building efforts on behalf of a group or organization.

Sales Oriented Stage: In this stage, the focus shifted from production to selling. ‘How to Sell’ became a problem and the new motto was ‘get rid of what you have’. Products cannot be sold without an effective sales force. It required emphasis on increasing the sales even at the cost of consumer satisfaction. Thus, the salesoriented stage was characterised by hard selling. The sales concept paid little attention to whether the product was actually needed or not. 

Marketing-oriented Stage: A company philosophy focused on discovering and meeting the needs and desires of its customers through its product mix. Consumer awareness forced the producers to promote marketing. The aim of marketing should be to know and understand the customer so well that the product or service fits him or her and thus sells itself. In this stage the key questions became: 

What do customers want? 

How can we develop it? 

How can we keep our customers satisfied?

In the product oriented stage the motto is “Make all you can”. 

1. Demand exceeds available supply. 

2. All that is made can be sold. 

3. Focus is on engineering and generating output, not the customer. 

In the sales oriented stage the motto was “Sell all you make”. 

1. Supply frequently exceeds demand. 

2. Focus is on promotion and pricing; objective is to sell the entire inventory.

Japan fought the Second World War against the British. In December 1941, they attacked Pearl harbour, an American naval base. It was also making significant gains in South-east Asia, which brought it closer to the borders of India. Hence, the British government was forced to seek the support of the leaders of India. There was a considerable pressure from the Allies, especially the USA on the Britain to grant constitutional reforms to India. 

In March 1942, the British Government sent Stafford Cripps, the leader of the House of Commons in England, to India with a set of proposals in order to seek its support for the war. 

Main proposal of the Cripps Mission : 

1. The British Government would set up an Indian Union with a dominion status.

2. The proposed union would be free to decide its relations with Britain. 

3. The Government would constitute a Constituent Assembly, which would frame the Constitution. 

4. Some of the members of this assembly were to be elected by the provincial assemblies through proportional representation. The other members were to be nominated by the princes of the Indian states. 

5. Any provinces not willing to join the Indian union would be free to frame a separate Constitution and form a separate union. 

6. The British Government desired for effective participation of Indians in the governor- general’s council. 

7. The defence of India would remain in the hands of the British.

(i) The weight of a body placed at the centre of the earth is zero. 

(ii) An ideal machine is that in which there is no dissipation of energy in any manner. The work output is equal to the work input i.e., 100% efficiency.

Hormones are chemical messengers produced by endocrine glands which move through blood to reach their target organs.

Monohybrid cross is a cross between two pure breeding different varieties of organisms taking the alternative traits of a single character e.g., cross between pure tall and pure dwarf variety.

Diapedesis is the movement of the blood cells, especially white blood cells, through intact capillary walls into surrounding body tissue.

Biomedical waste is the waste that is generated in the hospitals, nursing homes etc. like used bottles, syringes, plastic, bandages etc.

(i) Pull Migration: There is a vast scope of employment in industries, trade, transport and other services in the urban centres. So, the urban centres act as magnets for the migrant population, known as ‘Pull factors’. 

(ii) Push Migration: Due to unemployment, hunger and starvation people are pushed out of the villages to the urban centres to find livelihood. Natural disasters like floods, droughts, earthquakes, tsunami and war also give extra “push” to migrate to other regions.

Rural Settlements 

1. Rural settlements are of small size which may consist of two to four houses or a few hundred houses. 

2. Pollution-free environment. 

3. People are primarily engaged in agriculture or other primary activities.

Urban Settlements

1. Urban settlements are of bigger size in which a few thousand to a few lakh persons are living, still bigger cities are known as metro-polis. 

2. Environmental pollution is a great problem with urban population. 

3. People are primarily engaged in secondary and tertiary activities of which industry, trade, transport and services are important.

(a) A good leader has an exemplary character. 

(b) A good leader is confident. 

(c) A good leader as well as keeping the main goal in focus is able to think analytically.

Qualities of a good leader: 

Mental Strength: Some people have a misconception that only those people who are physically strong can become good leaders, but this is not the fact. A leader may not be physically strong but he needs to be mentally strong and firm in decisions. Leadership is a quality which cannot be acquired by any person from the other but it can be acquired by self-determination of a person. Leadership can best be called the personality of the very highest ability-whether in the ruling, thinking, imagining, innovation, warring, or religious influencing.

Communication: A great communicator is some way or the other is always a great leader. These are skills need to be learned from childhood, to be a great leader a child has to be trained in vocabulary, grammar etc. The history reveals that the world’s greatest leaders are exceptionally great communicators. An effective leader should be a mesmerizing orator. His words should be effective enough to motivate your followers. The majority of the time of a leader is spent in communication or interacting with people so interpersonal skills is a must. While communicating with people always make sure that you are giving the right message so, simplify the message in order to give the intended message.

Intelligence and Alertness: The most important quality which a leader should possess is intelligence and alertness. A leader has to use his/her brain every time and also has to remain alert with eyes and ears open otherwise he/she could easily be carried by any fraud or enemy.

Action-Oriented approach: The other qualities of a leader include impartiality, actionoriented approach and positive attitude. A good leader should always be impartial towards all his followers, because the moment he becomes partial, he no longer remains a leader as he loses the confidence of others. The duty of a leader is to encourage and raise the standard of all his followers and not just a few of them, and he should always remember his duty.

Optimist perspective: A leader should also be an optimist having a positive attitude. He should not think negatively or plan something showing a negative attitude. A person who thinks or plans something’s showing his negative attitude never be a Leader. A leader should always be courageous. He should have the courage to face the troubles or problems and solving the problems by himself in place of blaming and embarrassing others.

(i) Three Corrigian children – Two boys and a girl-were brought before the court in need of care and protection. A home was found for their shelter with Mr and Mrs Stanning at Longridge Farm. Here the children were ill treated and one of them died. Mr and Mrs Stanning were sent to jail for negligence. Mr Stanning died in prison. When Mrs Stanning was released from the prison she was murdered in Culver Street where she was living as Maureen Lyon. Trotter was investigating into this Longridge affair. 

(ii) Trotter had discovered about Mrs Ralston that before marriage, her name was Miss Waring. She was a teacher in the school where Jimmy was studying. He had also found out that Jimmy had managed to get letter posted to her. In this letter he had begged help from his teacher Miss Waring. But her teacher did not answer that letter. 

(iii) Mollie wanted to forget the horrible incident of Jimmy’s death. In fact when Jimmy’s letter reached her, she was down with pneumonia. So the letter was put aside along with other letters. It was weeks afterwards when she found and read the letter. By that time Jimmy had died . She could not do anything for him. She felt penitent. This haunted her for a long time. This is what she wanted to forget. Mollie was linked with the Longridge Farm affair because she was the teacher whom Jimmy had requested for help. 

(iv) Trotter very cleverly takes out his notebook and pretends to be an officer on duty to interview all those persons who were staying at Monkswell Manor. He tells Mollie that his visit is regarding police protection to be given to them which they need at the moment. He had reached Monkswell Manor with the help of his skis. 

(v) Trotter revealed to Mollie that he was not a policeman. He was George, Jimmy’s elder . brother. He also told her that he had cut the telephone wires before he entered the Monkswell Manor. Mollie was sayed by the intervention of Major Metcalf and Miss Casewell who appear on the scene and arrest George.

Training increases the knowledge and skills of the employees. They get expertise in their related jobs. Therefore, it helps in reducing supervision of employees.

Supervisor, being the manager in direct contact with the operatives, has got multifarious function to perform. The objective behind the performance of these functions is to bring stability’ and soundness in the organization which can be secured through an increase in profits which is an end result of higher productivity. 

Therefore, a supervisor should be concerned with performing the following functions:

1. Planning and Organizing: Supervisor’s basic role is to plan the daily work schedule of the workers by guiding them the nature of their work and also dividing the work amongst the workers according to their interests, aptitudes, skills and interests.

2. Provision of working conditions: A supervisor plays an important role in the physical setting of the factory and in arranging the physical resources at the right place. This involves providing the proper sitting place, ventilation, lighting, water facilities etc. to workers. His main responsibility is here to provide healthy and hygienic condition to the workers.

3. Leadership and Guidance: A supervisor is the leader of workers under him. He leads the workers and influences them to work their best. He also guides the workers by fixing production targets and by providing them with instruction and guidelines to achieve those targets.

4. Motivation: A supervisor plays an important role by providing different incentives to workers to perform better. There are different monetary and non-monetary incentives which can inspire the workers to work better.

5. Controlling: Controlling is an important function performed by the supervisor. 

This will involve.

• Recording the actual performance against the time schedule. 

• Checking the progress of work. 

• Finding out deviations if any and making solutions. 

• If not independently solved, reporting it to top management.

Supervision is defined as guiding the activities of people w’m perform the work. It includes planning, organizing, directing and controlling the work and the activities of subordinates or employees.

Functions of a supervisor : Planning and Organizing: Basic role of a supervisor is to plan the daily work schedule of the workers by guiding them the nature of their work and also dividing the work amongst the workers according to their interests, aptitudes, skills and interests.

Leadership and Guidance : A supervisor is the leader of workers working under him. He leads the workers and influences them to work their best. He also guides the workers by fixing production targets and by providing them instructions and guidelines to achieve those targets.

Motivation : A supervisor plays an important role by providing different incentives to workers to perform better. There are different inonetan and non-monetan incentives which can inspire the workers to work better and produce better.

Judicial activism and judicial restraint are two opposing approaches. It is related with judicial system of a country and it is a means to check against misuse of power of government or any constitutional body. 

The difference between the two is as follows;

Judicial activism refers to the interpretation of the Constitution to support current values and conditions. Conversely, judicial restraint delimits the powers of the judges to strike down a law.

In judicial restraint, the court should support every action of the Congress and the state legislatures unless it is found to be violating the Constitution of the country. In judicial restraint, the courts usually submit to interpretations of the Constitution by the Congress or any other constitutional body. In case of judicial activism, the judges have power to amend any injustice specifically when the other constitutional bodies do not act. Hence, judicial activism has a major role in formulating social policies pertaining to issues, such as protection of rights of an individual, public morality, civil rights and political unfairness.

Judicial restraint and judicial activism have different objectives. Judicial restraint helps to maintain a balance among the three organs of government, viz., judiciary, executive and legislative. The judges and the court are encouraged to review a current law instead of modifying it. Judicial activism gives them the power to overrule some previous acts or judgments. 

For example, the Supreme Court or an appellate court has power to reverse previously taken decisions if they were found to be faulty.

Unicameral system of parliament is the practice of having one legislative or parliamentary house. This system typically exists in small and homogeneous unitary states. Examples of countries that exercise unicameral system include the People’s Republic of China.

If there is only one house, then the house in course of time may become arrogant. It may act arbitrarily and become autocratic.

Modem states are complex societies. They require more laws of complex matters to be made. A single house cannot give adequate time for thorough discussion as to the making of those complex laws. A second chamber would reduce the burden of a single chamber considerably.

Unicameralism does not provide any opportunity for revision of bills. The single chamber may pass have and ill-considered bills. It may be swayed away by emotion and passion.

The six merits of a multi-party system are as follows : 

1. The multi-party system ensures the representation of all shades of public opinion. 

2. Under the multi-party system, the authoritarian tendencies in political parties are checked as there is greater competition among them for popular votes. 

3. Under multi-party system, the legislature enjoys authority and thus cabinet dictatorship is not possible. 

4. The multi-party system does not lead to despotism as the coalition government is afraid of legislature. 

5. In the multiple party system the voter has a wider choice to caste his vote. 

6. In a multi-party system, there is greater individual freedom and all shades of opinion can express themselves through various groups and parties.