Explore topic-wise InterviewSolutions in .

Among the elements given below, the element with the least electronegativity is Lithium.

(C) They can undergo addition as well as substitution reactions. 

(C) They can undergo addition as well as substitution

1. Fuel is a commodity used in the production of any commodity directly or indirectly. Fuel can be used directly as raw material and indirectly for transporting goods. Therefore rise in fuel price means, increase in cost of production of all the commodities and hence it creates inflation. 

2. The price level rises because of increasing cost of production. Rise in prices of factors of production like wage cost, rent etc. are the cost push factors. 

3. Effect of inflation:

1. Fixed income group in the economy: Real income means purchasing power of the money income. Fixed income group includes pensioners, Government servants etc. who get a fixed money income. This class is worst affected by inflation because the purchasing power of their fixed income goes on decreasing with rising prices. 

2. Distribution of income: The profit incomes of the businessmen entrepreneurs increase during inflation, while the real income of the common salaried people declines. Thus, the pattern of income distribution in the economy or society becomes unequal. 

3. Capital Formation: A majority of the governments of under developed countries have to take to deficit financing so as to make up for the growing expenditure on economic development. As a result, there is a lot of increase in prices. 

4. Producers: This class gains by inflation because: (1) They produce more to meet rising demand (2) They stock large quantity of raw material bought at pre-inflation prices (3) Wages increases less than the prices. (4) Those entrepreneurs and traders who repay the loans borrowed earlier stand to gain.

Investment in the infrastructure sector like power, irrigation, transport etc. has helped in agricultural and industrial development. Contributed a lot towards the growth of export oriented industries and foreign exchange earnings.

Monopolistic competition is a market situation where there is a large number of buyers and sellers selling closely related goods but surely not homogeneous. 

For example, take the case of tooth-paste, most commonly used commodity. There are many tooth pastes in the market, such as Colgate, Cibaca, Close-up, Pepsodent, etc. These are all closely related goods but there may be difference in quality, colour, size, taste etc. which separate them from one another. Each producer has a monopoly control over his own product but competition exists between them. Thus, we find a combination of monopoly and competitive elements. Similarly, we can take another example of toilet soap. There is a large number of firms producing different brands or varieties of soap, e.g. Hamam, Pears, Lifebuoy, Lux, Nirma etc. Each firm enjoys monopoly over its brand. For instance, Hindustan Lever Ltd. has monopoly over the trademark Lux. But there is a competition among these firms producing soap. Similarly, markets of so many products like tea, shoes, shampoo, watches, clothes, fans, bulbs, T.V. sets, pens, sewing machines, washing machines, etc. are example of monopolistic competition.

In real life, neither perfect competition nor monopoly are seen. Almost, every market seems to have the features of both perfect competition and monopoly, Economists call such a market as monopolistic competition or imperfect competition. The concept of monopolistic competition was developed by an American economist Prof. Chamberlin while Mrs. Joan Robinson gave the concept of imperfect competition. According to Left witch, “Monopolistic competition is a market situation in which there are many sellers of a particular product, but the product of each seller is in some way differentiated in the minds of consumers from the product of every other seller.” Thus, monopolistic competition is the blending of two extreme markets viz. perfect competition and monopoly.

In any country, the commodity which acts as a medium of exchange, the measure of value, the standard of deferred payments and as a store of value, is defined as money.

1. Bank rate is that discount rate at which the central bank of any country rediscounts the bills of exchange submitted by any commercial bank to take loans from the central bank. To check inflationary pressures, the RBI increases the bank rate. This discourages the investors to take loans from commercial banks, resulting in fall in investment in the economy, leading to a control on inflation. Similarly the RBI keeps the Bank rate at a low level to check the deflationary situation. 

2. In perfectly competitive market, the price is determined by the industry i.e. by all the firms taken together, by the forces of market demand and supply. An individual firm takes the price as given and he has to take decision about the amount of output to be sold on that price. Thus the firm under perfect competition is assumed to be price taker rather than price maker.

Product differentiation is a unique feature of monopolistic competition. Products of different firms are similar in nature but are differentiated in terms of brand name, shape, size, colour etc. For example, different brands of toothpaste vary on the basis of colour, taste, packaging etc. The essence of product differentiation is to create an image in the minds of buyer that the product sold by one seller is different from the product sold by another seller. It allows producers to determine the price policy for their goods independently.

An entrepreneur is a person or a group of persons who owns the enterprise and gets profits, whereas, an organizer is a person who organises the business and gets a fixed salary. He does not perform the other functions of an entrepreneur like risk taking and bearing uncertainty etc.

1. It is not treated as a labour in economics, as it is not a occupational division of labour. It is done for social obligation and self satisfaction and does not earn wages for services. 

2. It is not treated as labour in Economics as it is being done for its own pleasure not with the motive of earning money. 

3. It is treated as a labour in economics as it is a occupational division of labour, it refers to a system when one performs any particular occupation. 

4. It is not treated as a labour in economics as it is not a occupation division of labour. It is done for self satisfaction and pleasure and does not earn money.

Two characteristics of monopoly:

1. Single Seller and Many buyers: In the monopoly market, the single fim consists the whole industry. The supply made by this firm means the supply of the whole industry. But, there are many buyers of the product sold in the market. 

2. Types of the product: The products may be homogeneous or non homogeneous but no close substitutes are available in the market.

Public sector collects savings of the people and helps in capital formation. The nationalised as well as private banks have played an important role in collecting savings and mobilisation of resources.

A direct tax is that tax whose burden is borne by the same person on whom it is levied. He cannot shift or transfer the burden of tax on some other person; he has to pay it himself. 

For example, income-tax is a direct tax as it has to be paid by the person on whom it is levied.

An indirect tax is that tax which is initially paid by one individual but the burden of which is passed once to some other individual who ultimately bears it.

(i) Yes – Productive 

(ii) Yes – Service 

(iii) Yes – Service 

(iv) No – Non Productive

(i) Labour has some special characteristics which are not found in other factors of production. 

They are as follows.”

1. Labour is Perishable : If a worker does not work on a particular day, his labour for that day is wasted. Labour is, thus, perishable. Labour cannot be stored. The labourer has to sell his labour immediately irrespective of the prices (i.e., wages) paid to him. It is because of this feature that labour has a weak bargaining power.

2. Labour is an Active Factor of Production : Land and capital are passive factors, but labour is an active factor of production. Without labour, other factors of production, viz., land and capital, cannot produce anything. Labour is a living organism. Hence, it requires sympathetic treatment.

3. Labour cannot be Separated from Labourer : Land and capital can be separated from their.owners but labour cannot be separated from a labourer. Labour and labourer are inseparable from each other. The labourer will have to present himself at a place where work is going on. 

For example, it is not possible for a teacher to teach in the school, while staying away at home. Therefore, the worker and his service go together. He cannot sell his labour like land and capital.

4. Labour is Mobile : Labour alone is a factor which is mobile. It can move from one place to another and also from one occupation to another. Other factors of production such as land lacks mobility.

5. Labour Differs in Efficiency : All labourers are not equally efficient. Some labourers are more efficient due to their ability, training and skill, whereas others are less efficient on account of their illiteracy, ignorance, etc.

(ii) On the basis of skill formation, labour can be grouped into three main categories : 

1. Skilled Labour : Skilled labourers are those who have specialised training for a particular profession and also have long practical experience of the job. These workers are highly paid. Doctors, engineers, lawyers, etc., fall under this category.

2. Semi-Skilled Labour : Semi skilled workers are those who have only a part of a professional training of their trade but have sufficient experience in that line. The semi-skilled workers are paid comparatively less than the skilled workers.

3. Unskilled Labour : Unskilled workers are mainly employed for carrying out such jobs which do not require any specialised professional skill. Labourers who are employed for construction of houses, coolies, etc., are some examples of unskilled workers. They are poorly paid as their number is quite large in less developed countries like India.

(iii) In simple words, efficiency of labour implies the quality and quantity of goods and services which can be produced within a given time period and under certain conditions. According to Dr. Saxena, “By efficiency of labour we mean the amount of work which a labourer can do within a given time.”

Technology has great impact on the efficiency of labour. With the modem and updated technology, the working efficiency of labour is more and the productive capacity increases. The outdated technology adversely affect the overall output (or the productive capacity) ; even though the worker himself may be highly efficient, but due to outdated technology, he will not be in a position to make use of his talent properly.

Product differentiation is a situation where different producers in the market try to differentiate their product (with respect to size, weight, ranking or offering gift etc.) with a view to attract the buyers and exercising partial control over price. It is relevant to monopolistically competitive market.

Features of Monopolistic Competition : 

1. A Large Number of Sellers and Buyers : In monopolistic competition, the number of sellers is sufficiently large but not as large as under perfect competition. The sellers are not mutually dependent upon one another. Each of them acts independently and produces an insignificant portion of the total output.

2. Free Entry and Exit of Firms : Firms under monopolistic competition are free to enter or leave the industry at any time. New firms may start producing close substitutes of the product and supply the same in the market. Likewise, in the event of losses, the old firms may quit the industry. It is because of this characteristic, that firms are able to manage only normal profits. 

3. Selling Costs : Another important feature of monopolistic competition is that every firm tries to promote its sales through advertisement. Expenditures incurred on advertisement, etc., are known as selling cost. Selling costs are made to persuade buyers to buy a particular brand in preference to other brands of the product. Thus, selling costs tend to shift the firm’s demand curve to the right.

According to Dr. Kent, money is defined as “Anything which is commonly used and generally accepted as a medium of exchange or as a standard of value. ”

Contingent functions of money : 

(i) Assisting Production Decisions : The main objective of a producer or manufacturer is to maximize his sales revenue or profit. Therefore, he wants to employ such an amount of factors of production (labour, capital and other materials) which help in achieving the goals of profit maximisation while employing any factor, the firm has to make payments to pay wages to the workers, interest to the owners of capital, etc. All such factor payments are made in terms of money. Therefore, money prices of these factors help a firm in taking important production decisions.

(ii) Assisting Consumption Decisions : The main objective of. a consumer is to maximize his utility through consumption of various goods. But the consumption of goods depends on the money-income of the consumer as well as the money-prices of the commodities to be consumed. The consumer has to pay a price for purchasing commodities for consumption. The money-income of the consumer and the moneyprices of these commodities to be consumed also influence the consumption decisions of consumers.

(iii) Assisting Distribution of National Income : The owners of various factors of production sell their factors at market prices. Therefore, the owners of labour-power earn money wages, owners of capital earn interest, owners of land earn rent and owners of an organisation earn profits. All these factor-incomes collectively constitute national income Therefore, the distribution of national income among the owners of different factors is also determined by the money prices of such factors.

Price discrimination refers to a situation when a producer sells the same product to different buyers at two or more different prices for reasons not associated with difference in the cost of supplying the product to different consumers.

For Ex: 

1. Many hospitals charge lower operation fees from the poor patients & higher fess from the rich patients. 

2. Indian Railways charge lower freight rates for transporting essential product like food products, coal, etc. as compared to other products.

In simple words, charging different price for the same product or service from the different consumers on the basis of personal, situational and trade considerations is termed as price discrimination.

In Monopoly, it is relevant. In order to maximise his profit the monopolist adopts the policy of price discrimination. The idea behind this policy is the inability of the monopolist to charge higher price for the same goods or services from all the consumers, because in such situation a large number of persons with limited means will not be able to purchase the commodity and consequently the demand, output and profit will fall. This is why in order to maximise his profit the monopolist discriminates among buyers in respect of price.

The two similarities between a Perfect Market and a Monopolistically Competitive Market are:

1. All of these markets systems must produce at the quantity of maximum profit if they want to make the most amount of money. 

2. The price maximization condition of both the markets is marginal cost equals to marginal revenue (MC=MR)

(i) The GifFen’s Paradox : A fall in the price of inferior goods (Giffen Goods) tends to reduce its demand and a rise in its price tends to extend its demand. This phenomenon was first observed by SIR ROBERT GIFFEN, popularly known as Giffen’s paradox. He observed that the working class families of U.K. were compelled to curtail their consumption of meat in order to be able to spend more on bread.

Mr. Giffen, British economist, observed that rise in the price of bread caused the low paid British workers to buy more bread. These workers lived mainly on the diet of bread, when price rose, as they had to spend more for a given quantity of bread, they could not buy as much meat as before. Bread still being comparatively cheaper was substituted for meat even at its high price.

(ii) Fear of Shortage : The people may buy more of a commodity even at higher prices when they fear of a shortage of that commodity in near future. This is contrary to the law of demand. It may happen during times of war and inflation and mostly in the case of goods which fall in the category of necessities of life like sugar, kerosene oil etc.

(iii) Conspicuous Necessities : Another exception occurs in use of such commodities as due to their constant use, have become necessities of life. For example, inspite of the fact that the prices of television sets, refrigerators, washing machines, cooking gas, scooters etc., have been continuously rising, their demand does not show any tendency to fall. More or less same tendency can be observed in case of most of other commodities that can be termed as ‘Upper- Sector Goods’.

Land is an important factor of production inspite of the factor that land is a passive factor of production, no production can start without it. 

The importance of land becomes evident from the following facts :

(i) Agricultural Development : The agricultural development of a country largely depends upon the quantity and the quality of land. About 43 per cent of land area of India is plain and suitable for crop farming. Some parts of India have good climate, good rainfall and fertile lands and therefore then help in prosperous farming. The development of primary industries such as fishing, mining, forestry, etc., is determined by the quality of land found in the country. About 27 per cent of land area in India is mountainous which provides natural resources in form of forests and mineral resources.

(ii) Industrial Development : The development of industries is also dependent upon land, because the raw materials for these industries are ultimately obtained from land. What is more, the power (i.e., electricity, coal, etc.) to run such industries is also provided by land.

(iii) Development of the Means of Transport and Communication : Land facilitates the development of the means of transport and communication in country. Sea coast and rivers provide navigation facilities for transportation. However, the construction of roads and railway tracks turns out to be very costly and expensive in hilly regions.

(iv) Importance to Man : Much of our requirements of food, clothing, etc., are directly or indirectly met from land. Our food consists of rice, wheat, other cereals and pulses, fish, meat, eggs, milk, etc. all our food comes from plants and animals which nature supports. Not only food, even clothing comes from nature. Cotton cloth, woollen cloth and silk are products of plants and animals. Land is the main source of our agricultural activities. Residential houses are constructed on land. Not only this, houses are made of bricks, stone, wood and steel, all of which in their raw form come from nature.

(a) Micro-irrigation system.

(b) Organic farming.

At a League conference in Lahore in 1940, Jinnah said: “Hindus and the Muslims belong to two different religions, philosophies, social customs and literature. It is quite clear that Hindus and Muslims derive their inspiration from different sources of history. They have different epics, different heroes and different episodes. To yoke together two such nations under a single state, one as a numerical minority and the other as a majority, must lead to growing discontent and final destruction of any fabric that may be so built up for the Government of such a state.” 

At Lahore the League formally recommitted itself to creating an independent Muslim state called Pakistan, including Sindh, Punjab, Baluchistan, the North West Frontier Province and Bengal, that would be “wholly autonomous and sovereign.” The resolution guaranteed protection for non-Muslim religions. The Lahore Resolution was adopted on March 23, 1940, and its principles formed the foundation for Pakistan’s first constitution. Talks between Jinnah and Gandhi in 1944 in Bombay failed to achieve agreement. This was the last attempt to reach a single-state solution.

(i) Gas evolved : SO₂ (Sulphur dioxide) 

Chemical test : It changes orange acidified potassium dichromate green. 

(ii) Gas evolved : H₂S (Hydrogen sulphide) 

Chemical test : Turns lead nitrate solution black.

(i) Nitric oxide 

(ii) Nitrogen dioxide, Sulphuric acid

(i) Nitrogen dioxide 

(ii) hydrogen sulphide 

(iii) nitrogen monoxide 

(iv) oxygen 

(v) hydrogen

Hydrogen sulphide (H₂S) gas is produced when dilute hydrochloric acid reacts with sodium sulphide. 

Na₂S(aq) + 2HCl(aq) ---> H₂S(g) +2NaCl(aq)

Hydrogen gas is produced during the reaction of ethanol and sodium. 

C₂H₅OH + Na ----> C₂H₅ONa + 1/2H₂(g)

Hydrogen gas is evolved at the anode during the electrolysis of acidified water. 

2H₃O⁺(aq) + 2e^- ---> H₂(g) + 2H₂O(l)

(i) At Anode : Cu - 2e^- → Cu²⁺

At Cathode : Cu²⁺  + 2e^- → Cu

(ii) At Anode : Br^- - e^- → Br

                       Br + Br → Br₂

At Cathode :  Pb²⁺ + 2e^- → Pb

The cathode and anode both are made of graphite plate.

(C) A silver grey deposit at cathode and reddish brown fumes at anode.

The four losses in a transformer are :

(i) Joules losses ,

(ii) Loss due to hysteresis 

(iii) Eddy current losses 

(iv) Loss due to leakage of flux Eddy current losses in a transformer take place in the core of the transformer. This loss is reduced by laminating the iron core.

The current rating of a fuse is 5 A means that if current exceeds 5 A in the circuit, the fuse wire will melt.

The voltage is stepped up from 11 kV to 132 kV to minimise the loss of energy in the form of heat in the live wires used for transmission. 

A soft iron metal piece is used for making the armature of an electric bell. 

Reason : Soft iron can be easily magnetized and demagnetized.

(i) Light energy to electrical energy. 

(ii) Electrical energy to magnetic energy.

(i) Nuclear fusion : When two light nuclei are combined to form single heavy nucleus with release of energy is called nuclear fusion.

(ii) In fusion high energy per unit mass released than fission, therefore it is useful in producing

Compton effect: It is the increase in wavelength of the electromagnetic radiation when these radiations are scattered by tree electrons or from elements of low atomic weight. Some of the energy of the incident photon is transferred to the electron due to which its wavelength increases.

24 x 10° = 24 Ω (according to color code)

Since, there is no battery in the closed mesh ABC, therefore Σir = 0

∴ Applying second law to the mesh ABCA, we get

1. Deforestation 

2. Deepening of the river bed will prevent floods and ultimately shore and stream bank erosion. 

3. The soils an indefinitely durable so they provide valuable building material.

1. Because hill slope is cut into a number of terraces having horizontal top and steep slopes on the back and front. So the terrace farming is an ideal soil conservation method for hilly regions. 

2. Because it does not require much moisture. 

3. Due to low rainfall, wind can lift the valuable top soil from one area and deposits in another area. So that wind is a common agent of soil.

1. As temperature range is very high so station X is in the interior of the country. 

2. Annual rainfall = 2 + 1+0+5 + 15 + 62+71 + 81 + 59+12+10+3 = 321cm 

3. South-west monsoon

1. Alluvial soil 

2. Red soil

1. Black soil 

2. Maharashtra and Gujarat

(a) Three Functions of the International Court of Justice. 

1. Voluntary Jurisdiction: Its jurisdiction covers all cases which the parties refer to it. One party alone may refer the dispute to the court. If the other party undertakes to defend itself in a case brought before it, the court interprets it as consent to the reference. 

2. Codification International Law: The court has played an important role in the codification of international law. It required a through examination of international conventions, International customs, Judicial decisions and General principles of law. 

3. Evolving Procedures for Peaceful Settlement of Disputes: At any stage of the dispute the court may recommend appropriate procedures or methods of settlement. It may also recommend terms of settlement. 

(b) Composition of International Court of Justice: 

1. The court consists of 15 Judges each separately chosen by the security council and General Assembly of these, those 15 persons who are chosen by majority vote in both bodies are elected the judges of the court. 

2. The court elects its President and Vice President for a three year term. They may when their term expires be re-elected. 

3. The court has power to appoint its registrar. 

(c) The emblem is associated with World Health Organisation (WHO). 

Functions of W.H.O : 

1. It helps the countries to build-up infrastructure in health. 

2. It promotes research for developing new technologies in health, nutrition, maternal and child care etc. 

3. It provides safe drinking water. 

4. It organizes immunizations to prevent six major communicable diseases like Polio, Diphtheria, Measles, Tetanus, Tuberculosis and Whooping Cough. 

5. It prevents death among infants from diarrhoea. 

6. It trains medical personnel to tackle emergency situations in relation to health. 

7. It sets standards for many life saving drugs. 

8. It provides information and consultation on health matters and health, awareness.

(a) Three measures taken by Subhash Chandra to establish a socialist society are: 

1. State planning for the reorganization of agriculture and industry on socialist lines. 

2. Abolition of landlordism i.e., Zamindari system. 

3. A new monetary and credit system. 

(b) At the Tokyo conference the following decisions were taken: 

1. To expand and strengthen the Indian Independence League. 

2. To form under the overall command of the League INA i.e., an army of Indian liberation. 

3. To hold a conference at Bangkok to consolidate these decisions. 

(c) Contributions of Subhash Chandra Bose: Subhash Chandra Bose was a diehard Freedom fighter and a Nationalist. 

1. He started a new party called Forward Bloc by bringing all the left wing parties under one roof. 

2. He became the supreme commander of the Indian National Army raised in Sept. 1942 for getting freedom from British. 

3. He got full support from Japanese political and military leaders. He received the islands of Andaman and Nicobar from the Japanese and renamed them ‘Shaheed’ and ‘Swaraj’ respectively. The provisional government of India started functioning from his territory. 

4. He gave the call to his countrymen “You give me blood and I will give you Freedom”. He gave the clarion call to INA soldiers ‘Delhi Chalo’ as their ultimate destination. Although INA lost the battle against the British yet it had kindled the flame of Independence among the Indians.

(a) (i) Picture 1: Dada Bhai Naoroji and Picture 

2: Gopal Krishna Gokhale. 

(ii) He criticized British rule for its bad effect on Indian economy. Through his famous ‘Drain Theory’ Dada Bhai Naoroji explained how India’s wealth was being taken away to England in these forms: 

1. Salaries payable to the members of the India Council. 

2. Dispatch of savings to England by British personnel posted in India. 

3. Pensions to British Officers. 

4. Payments to the war office for the maintenance of British troops in India. 

5. The Indian National Congress was to be formed. The objectives were as follows: 

1. To enable national workers from all parts of India to become personally known to each other. 

2. To end all racial, religious and provincial prejudices and to promote a feeling of national unity among all lovers of the country. 

3. The formulation of popular demands on vital Indian problems and their presentation before the government. 

4. To train and organise public opinion in the country.

(c) With in the first twenty years of the foundation of Indian National Congress, two groups of leaders—Moderates and Extremists emerged. Major differences in which are :

(a) Indian soldiers were an integral part of the Indian society, they too suffered the consequences of the oppressive British rule. Besides, they had other grievances. The Indian sepoys were looked upon as inferior beings and treated with disrespect by their British officers. They were paid much less than the British soldiers. All avenues of the promotion were closed to them as all the higher army posts were reserved for the British. There were other specific and more immediate causes for the discontent among the sepoys. The annexation of Awadh inflamed their strong feelings against foreign rule. Finally, there occurred an incident, which sparked of the revolt. It was the introduction of the Enfield rifle with the Greased Cartridges. The cartridge for that gun contained some animal fat only it. To loads that cartidge in the gun, the soldier was required to use his teeth to tear of one end of the cartridge, At once, a rumor spread among the sepoys that the cartridge contained the fat of cows and pigs. It meant the loss of religion by the Hindus and Muslims alike. It made the sepoys furious. The British authorities forced the sepoys to use the cartridge. The sepoys saw a deep conspiracy to destroy their religious faiths. 

(b) The British used very shrewd methods to gain control over the rulers of the native states. They struck at the very root of their existence, through the Doctrine of Lapse. According to this, if a ruler died without or heir, his adopted son could neither inherit the throne nor the title and the state would be annexed to the British empire using this policy Lord Dalhousie annexed Satara, Jhansi and Nagpur. And where this policy could not be applied, the pretext of mismanagement in the governance of the state was used as was done in the case of Oudh. This discriminating actions of the British caused widespread resentment among the native rulers. 

(c) As a result of the British policy of making India a raw material producing country. Indian handicrafts and cottage industries were ruined. Thousands of craftsman and artisans were thrown out of employment. The manufacturers of silk and cotton goods got no profits from their work and began to look for other means of livelihood. The miserable condition of the workmen became a potent cause of resentment against the British rule.