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Two differences between subsistence and commercial agriculture are: 

(1) Subsistence agriculture is done with old primitive method where as commercial agriculture is practiced in scientific method. 

(2) In subsistence agriculture crop is cultivated to fulfill farmers requirement and not for sale where as in commercial agriculture crops are meant for sale.

Geographical reasons for the growth of IT industries in Banglore are : 

1. Pleasant and comfortable climate. 

2. Centre for international conferences and work shops.

(a) Hematite and Magnetite states grade of iron ore is mostly found in India. Two leading iron ore producing states are Orissa and Jharkhand. 

(b) Lignite is a poor quality coal which has 60% of carbon content. It is found in Kashmir (Riasi) and Tamil Nadu (Neyveli). 

(c) Leading producer of Manganese in India is Orissa. 

Two Industrial uses of Manganese are: 

1. Used for the manufacturing of paints and glass. 

2. Used in Iron and Steel industry to strengthen steel. 

(d) Two states where limestone is found — Chhattishgarh and Madhya Pradesh. Two uses of limestone are : 

1. It is used as raw material in cement industry and 

2. As flux in iron and steel industry.

Two geographical requirements for the growth of rubber are : 

(i) It requires 200 to 300 cm of rainfall well distributed. 

(ii) It requires temperature ranging between 20°C to 35°C.

(i) The cultivation of wheat requires a temperature of 10°C while sowing and 15°C- 20°C during repening. Average annual rainfall of 50-70 cm is also suitable for the cultivation of crops.

(ii) In India, wheat is a Rabi crop-therefore, winter wheat is grown whereas in China both winter and spring wheat are grown.

Visveswaraya Iron and Steel Limited is located away from the main coal areas. Its main source of energy earlier was charcoal but now it uses Hydroelectric Power from Mahatma Gandhi and Sharavati Hydroelectric power station.

Two problems of agriculture in India are : 

1. Land holdings are small due to farm fragmentation. 

2. Farmers are poor and not educated so cannot afford modem technology and implements.

(a) Two important by products of sugar industry are : 

1. Molasses: It is a kind of dark brown syrup that drains from sugar during the process of manufacture. It is used to produce industrial alcohol, fertilizer, rum etc. 

2. Bagasse: It is the rejected cane left after being crushed. It is mainly Used for manufacturing paper, fibre board etc. 

(b) Punjab is the largest producer of woollen textiles because : 

1. Raw material is easily available as sheep rearing is the main occupation in hilly areas adjoining Punjab. 

2. Demand for product is high because of very cold winters. 

(c) Problems of jute textile industry : 

1. Demand for jute products have decreased due to synthetic substitutes in national and international markets. 

2. India faces a problem of shortage of raw jute as most of the jute growing areas went to Bangladesh after partition. 

3. Obsolete machinery and inefficient or uneconomic units. 

(d) (i) Mumbai is the country’s most important cotton textile manufacturing centre. 

(ii) Two geographical reasons are : 

1. Mumbai’s hinterland, the black regur soil produces the raw cotton required. 

2. The humid climate of Mumbai favours the production of yams of finer counts.

Geographical requirement of wheat are : 

1. Temperature: It is a crop of temperate region, requires temperature ranging between 10°C to 15°C. 

2. Rainfall: It requires rainfall ranging between 50 to 100 cm.

(i) Withering: It is involved in the process of making black tea. The tea leaves are spread over shelves called withering racks and air is blown over the leaves to reduce their moisture content and to make them soft and flexible. This is called withering. 

(ii) Plantation farming: It is a type of farming in which a single crop is grown on large estates which are scientifically managed. Crops are grown mainly for sale purpose. It involves large number of labourers and huge capital. 

(iii) Drilling: It is a method of sowing seeds at regular interval through a bamboo shaft attached to the plough which make furrows.

With reference to coffee cultivation : 

(i) Two varieties of coffee are Arabica and Robusta. 

(ii) Because they supplement the farmer’s income and provide shade to the coffee plants. 

(iii) Karnataka.

Two textiles industries are : 

1. Woollen Industry State—Punjab. 

2. Silk Industry State—Karnataka.

Geographical reasons : 

(i) Cotton grows widely in Maharastra because black soil is found there. 

(ii) Because clonal planting helps to produce superior quatily, better yield and special flavour of the mother plants. 

(iii) Oilseeds play a very important role in the Indian economy. They provide raw material to various industries.

Differences in the geographical conditions and cultivation of rice and wheat :

Two features of plantation farming are : 

1. Mono culture is practiced. 

2. Farm lands are large in size. 

Examples : Rubber and tea.

Poverty and farm fragmentation of land results in small and uneconomic land holding and yield per hectare becomes low.

Leading producer stales for the following minerals : 

(i) Coal—Jharkhand. 

(ii) Oil—Maharastra.

(iii) Manganese—Orissa.

Mineral used in the manufacturing of :

(1) Cement—Limestone. 

(2) Aluminium—Bauxite 

(3) Synthetics—Petroleum

Reasons for conservation of water resources : 

(i) Because our water resources are polluted by foreign matters. 

(ii) Increasing demand of water due to increasing population. 

(iii) Uneven distribution of water all over the country.

Anthracite and bituminous variety are used for domestic purpose because it has high calorific value and leaves less ash.

Two uses of Manganese: 

1. Making of iron and steel. It makes it tough. 

2. Manufacturing of paints and glass.

(i) Class can be extends in another class. 

(ii) Interface is implemented in another class.

W = H₂SO₄ (Fuming)

X = NaOH

Y = dil HCl

Z = CH₃COCl

Thermoplastics are linear polymers which can be repeatedly softened on heating and hardened on cooling and hence can be used again and again without any change in chemical composition e.g., polythene, polypropene etc. Thermosetting polymers, on the other hands, are permanently setting polymers. On heating in a mould, they get hardened and set and cannot be softened again. This is due to cross-linking between different polymer chains to give a three-dimensional network solid e.g., bakelite, melamine-formaldehyde polymer etc.

The essential problems caused due to the growth of large cities are : 

Unemployment: When people migrate to the cities, they do not find appropriate jobs and add to the problems of unemployment in the cities. The rural folks are generally unskilled, illiterate, hardly willing to work in the agricultural fields. They are often thrown out . of the villages as surplus labor force due to mechanization of agriculture.

Pollution: The haphazard and uncontrolled growth of cities had led to unprecedented environmental pollution including pollution of air, water and land within the cities and in areas surrounding them.

Growth of Slums and Squatter Settlement: Unplanned and haphazard growth of urban areas is the cause of spread of slums and squatter settlements.

Urban Sprawl: As the cities grow in size, they encroach upon the surrounding areas and areal expansion takes place. Almost all the cities are grown at the expense of surrounding agricultural land thus reducing the scope of agricultural activities.

Two important means of mass communication are: 

1. radio and television 

2. print media like newspapers and periodicals.

Two narrow-gauge railway lines present in the Himalayan region are : 

1. Kalka to Simla 

2. Siliguri to Darjeeling.

Watershed management is a very important means to conserve water resources which help to increase agricultural production and stop ecological degradation. The scheme also helps the rural people to conserve water for drinking, irrigation, fisheries and afforestation and allied activities like horticultural, agroforestry and silviculture. The name of the water harvesting program implemented in Andhra Pradesh is Neeru Meeru (Water and You).

Land includes all that is provided by nature as a free gift for use by mankind. No productive operation is possible without land. It is the original source of all material wealth.

Four factors that influence the productivity of land:

1. Natural Factors: Productivity of land is largely determined by its natural qualities such as fertility, slope of land, climate, chemical and biological properties of the soil. 

2. Human Factors: Productivity of land also depends upon the knowledge and training of workers. A wise farmer can take more produce from the same land than an untrained farmer. 

3. Improvement on Land: Productivity of land is affected by land development measures like provision of well or tube-well irrigation, proper drainage, fencing, etc. 

4. Location of Land: The location of land also affects the productivity of land. Land located near the market is supposed to be more productive than land at a distant place, as it will not require extra amount to bring the produce to the market. If it is situated away from the market, farmer will have to pay more for transportation of the produce to the market.

Indian Judiciary is one of the three pillars of the democracy other than Legislature and Executive. Though Indian Constitution has envisaged separation of powers between these pillars they are not sovereign in absolute sense. But if compared to the judicial systems of other democracies, Indian judiciary can be termed as powerful among its tribe globally and the reasons for this are as follows:

When compared to the British Constitution, from where the tenets of democracy spread to other countries, Indian judiciary seems to be more powerful. In case of Britain, parliament is sovereign and judiciary has a secondary role to play as compared to parliament.

When compared to its American counterpart, Our Supreme Court possesses larger powers, which can be described as follows:

The Appellate jurisdiction of American supreme court is confined only to the issues arising out of federal relationships, but Indian SC is not only the federal court but also a highest court of appeal. Appeals related to civil and criminal cases can be heard originating from any lower court.

Our SC can entertain special leave petition arising from any tribunals but there is no such appeal granted by American SC.

Our SC has been mandated with giving advisory opinion to the President and government, there is no such provision in American constitution.

Besides getting more powers over its peers in the world, Indian Judiciary has time to time stated its authority as a guardian of constitution which can be made clear as follows:

It has given the “Doctrine of Basic structure” in the famous Keshvananda Bharti case (1973), upholding the supremacy of constitution.

It innovated “Public Interest Litigation” to serve those who are unable to reach judiciary for various reasons or where public interest has suffered a lot.

It has upheld even the fundamental rights of the prisoners by invoking that inordinate delay in deciding on mercy petitions is violation of the Article 21 of the constitution.

Though these are the positive measures by Indian judiciary there are instances when it is blamed for judicial over-reach. So our judiciary system shall maintain the delicate balance of power between three pillars besides upholding the spirit of the constitution.

The three salient features of Indian Constitution are : 

Federalism: Federalism refers to a system of government in which the power is divided between central and state governments. The state government looks after maintenance of law and order in their respective states, while central government deals with the issues of national importance like defense and foreign affairs.

Parliamentary form of Government: India has a parliamentary form of government in which people elect their representatives, who are responsible for framing rules and regulations for entire country. The constitution has granted the principle of universal adult franchise where every citizen of India above 18 years has a right to vote, irrespective of religion, caste or gender. The parliament consists of elected members and is the supreme law-making body. _

Separation of Powers: There is division of power between three branches of government, viz., legislature, executive and judiciary. There is balance of power among the three organs of the Government as these three exercise different powers and keep check on their respective organ. The legislature is responsible for making the laws, the executive is for implementation of the laws and the judiciary for punishing those who violate the laws.

The forests in Northeast India are found in hot humid areas with an average annual rainfall of above 200 cm and the relative humidity is more than 70%. The average temperature is 24°C. Hilly topography, favourable climate specially rainfall and temperature are responsible for the high concentration of forests. Moreover, NE India is relatively undeveloped and lack industrialisation and population density is also low. As a result, mass falling or cutting down of trees has not taken place.

Metro cities have the population of about 1 million, e.g. Kanpur, Pune. Megacities have the population of about 5 million, e.g. Kolkata, Mumbai.

In situ conservation refers to ‘on-site’ conservation of plants and animals as such. It is a process of protecting plants or animals in its natural habitat by protecting or cleaning up the habitat, or by defending the species from the predators, e.g., National Park, Sanctuaries and Biosphere Reserve. 

Ex situ conservation is ‘off-site conservation’ by protecting an endangered species of plant or animal by removing part of population from a threatened habitat and placing it in a new location such as wild area, zoos or botanical gardens, in vitro gene bank, germplasm-banks, in vivo gene bank.

(1) Vitamin C

(2) Vitamin A

(a) Difference between Spot market and Future Market :

(b) Difference between institutional and Product Advertising:

(c) Difference between Fixed Deposit Account and Recurring Deposit Account:

(e) Difference between Recruitment and selection :

(a) Selection is the process that an organization uses to determine which job applicant will be the most successful in meeting the demands of the job or will fit well with the existing work groups and the culture of the organization. Benefits of employee selection : 

Reduces Applicant Numbers : 

Recruitment attracts many applicants to a particular job, which may prove difficult to manage, but selection reduces applicants to a manageable number. Candidates who have applied for a job dining the recruitment stage are screened in the selection stage. Those who prove suitable for the job are selected and unsuitable ones are rejected. 

Access Behaviour : 

Selection gives managers an opportunity to assess potential employees’ character and personality. This ensures that only an employee with the most suitable personalities and skills is given the job. The organization takes particular notice of the personal flexibility and adaptability of a candidate, which assures that such an individual can adjust rapidly to the tough demands of the job. 

Low Employee Turnover 

Appropriate selection procedures applied in the recruitment process ensure that only the most qualified individual is chosen to fill a vacancy. Recruited employees who are satisfied with their jobs lead to a low employee turnover rate. Employee retention is important to an organization, as the costs of hiring and training new employees are very high. 

(b) Under the Internship Training, an educational or a vocational institute enters into an arrangement with the industrial enterprises to provide experiential knowledge to their students. Simply, the training conducted to offer a practical knowledge to the students, lasting for few months, is called as the internship training. These trainings are conducted for such courses viz. Engineering, Medical, Management, etc., wherein the advanced theoretical knowledge is to be backed up by the practical experience of the job. 

Role playing method is a stimulation in which each participant is given a role to play. Trainees are given with some information related to description of the role, concerns, objectives, responsibilities, emotions, etc. Then, a general description of the situation and the problem that each one of them faces, is given. For instance, situation could be strike in factory, managing conflict, two parties in conflict, scheduling vacation days, etc. Once the participants read their role descriptions, they act out their roles by interacting with one another. 

(c) Employees of the organization : Employees of the organization communicate or inform about the vacant positions of the organization to their friends and relatives. In many organizations, they allowed referring potential candidates for the suitable vacancies. 

Promotions : Promotions involve vacancies of the organization are filled by promoting the skilled employees to the suitable jobs and it can motivate the employees by giving higher position, increased salary, status and responsibility. Promotions can help in reducing employee turnover by creating the hope of getting higher positions.

(a) Advantages of advertising to manufacturers : 

1. The increase in demand caused by advertising makes possible the installation of latest plants and introduction of technological improvement. This results not only in improved quality of the product but in the reduction of the cost per unit. 

2. Through advertising the manufacturer can create a demand for his product and maintain it throughout the year and thereby reduce the seasonal slumps in his business. 

(b) 

(i) Advertising : Advertising is defined as any paid form of non-personal presentation and promotion of ideas, goods and services by an identified sponsor. It is a way of mass communication. It is the most popular and widely practiced tool of market promotion. Major part of promotional budget is consumed for advertising alone. Various advertising media – television, radio, newspapers, magazines, outdoor means and so forth, are used for advertising the product. 

(ii) Sales promotion : Sales promotion covers those marketing activities other than advertising, publicity and personal selling that stimulate consumer purchasing and dealer effectiveness. Sales promotion mainly involves short-term and non-routine incentives, offered to dealers as well consumers. The popular methods used for sales promotion are demonstration, trade show, exhibition, exchange offer, seasonal discount, free service, gifts, contests, etc. 

(c) Non-traditional markets are : 

• Catalogue market 

• In-house market 

• Mail-order market 

• Automatic vending machines 

• Tele-market 

Catalogue market : The seller prepares catalogues of products and sells directly to the customer. Samples of the products are also kept at the selling place of the seller which can be seen, tested or examined by the customers. 

Avon is a good example of a company successfully using this channel to sell its range of cosmetics. In-house market: In this type of market, sales persons visit doorto-door in the locality and offer products to the people at their houses. This is an effective method and offers good discounts to the customers. Dictionaries, visual books are sold in this manner. 

Mail-order market : In this type of market, the seller mails the catalog of the products and other publicity material to the prospective buyers. Customers place orders after reading the publicity material. Goods are dispatched through courier or VP.P. This market is however being replaced by online shopping firms like Flip kart, Amazon. 

Automatic vending machines : These machines are installed in the premises of malls, workplaces, schools and public places. Customer puts the coins/cash in the machine and collects the product. Vending machines for selling cold drinks, tea, coffee, soups can be seen at various places. Tele-markets: The product is advertised on television channels and in the newspapers. Toll-free numbers are provided in the advertisement for placing the orders. Orders are executed through couriers.

Power exerted = Force x Average speed

= 150 x 10 

= 1500 W

(A + B).(A’ + B)

Fixation: Excessive investment of psychic energy in a particular stage of psychosexual development; this results in various types of psychological disorders.

According to Freud, Super ego is akin to conscience which incorporates the moral standard and values of parents, and rules and norms of society which cautions the person to remain firmly on the right path.

According to Sigmund Freud, “ego is one of the components of the mind which works on the ‘reality’ principle. This component takes into account external reality in the expression of instinctive behaviour and aggressive urges arising from id.

Personality type put forward by Sheldon is- Endomorph, Mesomorph, Ectomorph.

Sheldon’s Classification:

Jean Piaget put forward the theory of cognitive development.

Type theories advocate that human potentialities can be classified into a few clearly defined types and each person can be described as belonging to a certain type. 

Greek physician, Hippocrates gave a classification on the basis of dominant fluids. According to him, the human body consists of four types of humors or fluids — blood, yellow bile, phlegm (mucus) and black bile. The predominance of one of these four types of fluids in one’s body gives him unique temperamental characteristics leading to a particular type of personality classification is as follows

Sanguine personality (Blood : Predominant fluid in the body): Light hearted, carefree, optimistic, easy-going, hopeful, accommo-dating, happy, responsive, sociable, talkative, lively, has leadership qualities. 

Choleric personality (Yellow bile : Predo-minant fluid in the body) : Irritable, restless, aggressive, impulsive, excitable, active, angry but passionate, strong with active imaginatic , touchy, flexible. 

Phlegmatic personality: (Phlegm/Mut c : Predominant fluid in the body): calm, tempered, controlled, reliable, slow/sluggish, indifferent, thoughtful, peaceful, passive, careful. 

Melancholic personality (Black bile : Pre-dominant fluid in the body): Pessimistic, rigid, unsociable, bad-tempered, sad, deplorable, self-involved, dejected, anxious, moody, reserved.

Method used in the study of personality and social motives in which a subject is presented with a relatively ambiguous stimulus and asked to describe it in a meaningful way or to tell a story about it.

Primary Cognitive appraisal – The evaluation of a situation whether it is threatening or not.

School environment refers to the environment in which the learner finds himself and in which the learning process takes place. 

The contribution of psychology in school environment is as follows : 

To understand individual differences : No two individuals are alike in the world. The teacher has to face a class of 30 to 50 students which have a great range of individual differences. The teacher with the help of the knowledge of the kind of individual differences may adjust his teaching to the needs and requirement of the class. This may be helpful in creating a conclusive environment. 

To understand effective teaching methods : It gives us the knowledge of appropriate methods of teaching. It helps in developing new strategies of teaching- Valid psychological principles not only suggests new techniques of teaching- learning but also eliminates many traditional practices. Use of audio-visual aids makes the difficult concepts more clear and definite and learning is more lasting. It is the contribution of educational psychology that teacher make use of various types of audio-visual aids in class in class¬room teaching. Now subjects are included in the time table keeping in mind their difficulty level. 

Curriculum construction : Psychological principles are also used in formulating curriculum for different stages. No two difficult subjects are taught in successive periods. Needs of the students, their development characteristics learning patterns and needs of the society are all incorporated in the curriculum. 

Measurement of learning outcomes : Psychological tools help the teacher to assess the learning outcomes of the students. It also helps to evaluate the teaching methods in the light of performance of students. 

Development of positive attitude : Teacher’s training program aim to develop positive attitude of teachers towards teaching profession. They help to develop confidence in trainees to face the problems and adaptability to deal with unexpected problems in daily classroom teaching. Earlier teachers used to give undue importance to theoretical subjects in school. Activities like debates and drama or sports were considered a waste of time. Nowadays, these activities are given their due importance for the harmonious development of personality.