Explore topic-wise InterviewSolutions in .

“Management is the Process of getting things done with the aim of Achieving Goals Effectively and Efficiently”. 

Importance of Management is as follows : 

• Management Helps in Achieving Group Goals : Management is required Not for Itself , but for Achieving the Goals of the Organization . The Task of a Manager is to give a Common Direction to the Individual Effort in achieving the Overall Goal of the Organization . 
• Management Increases Efficiency : The Aim of a Manager is to Reduce Costs and Increase Productivity through Better Planning , Organizing, Directing , Staffing and Controlling the Activities of the Organization. 
• Management Creates a Dynamic Organization : All Organizations have to Function in an Environment which is Constantly Changing. It is generally seen that Individuals in an Organization resist change as it often means moving from a Familiar , Secure Environment into a Newer and More Challenging One. Management helps People adapt to these changes, so that the Organization is able to Maintain its Competitive Edge . 
• Management Helps in Achieving Personal Objectives: A Manager Motivates and Leads his Team in such a manner that Individual Members are able to achieve Personal Goals while Contributing to the Overall Organizational Objective . Though Motivation and Leadership the Management helps Individuals to Develop Team Spirit , Co-operation and Commitment to Group Success . 
• Management Helps in the Development of Society : An Organization has Multiple Objectives to Serve the Purpose of the different groups that constitute it . In the Process of Fulfilling all these Management helps in the Development of the Organization and through that it helps in the Development of Society. It helps to provide Good Quality Products and Services , Creates Employment Opportunities, Adopts New Technology for the Greater Good of the People and Leads the Path towards Growth and Development.

(a) Method Study : The Method Study Technique of Scientific Management is conducted to find out the One Best Method or Way of Performing the Job which keeps Production Cost Minimum and makes Maximum use of Resources of the Organization . Taylor suggested that Method of Production should not be decided by Rule of Thumb Method , but All the Methods must be tried in the Organization and the one which brings Maximum benefits with Minimum Cost must be Selected . E.g. For Production of Shoes , there can be Labour intensive method and machine intensive method. To find out which is best management must evaluate the cost of production with both the methods and compare both the methods with the available resources of the company. The method which involves minimum cost and exploits maximum resources must be selected as the best method of production.

(b) Fatigue Study : This Technique of Scientific Management is conducted to find out : 

 – The Frequency of Rest Intervals 

– The Duration of Rest Intervals 

– The Number of Rest Intervals 

It is a Human Tendency that a person feels Physically and Mentally Tired if She / He is made to work continuously without any rest. The rest period enables one to regain the stamina and to work again with same capacity . Fatigue study intends to find out the number and frequency of rest intervals that must be provided to a worker in completing a job efficiently. Workers cannot work at a stretch. After putting in work for a certain period of time they feel tired which affects their performance. If they are allowed rest intervals, they will regain their stamina and will resume their work greater energy. For example, if workers are involved in heavy manual labour such as brick layering or poor working conditions then small pauses must be given to them and after each interval they resume their work with greater enthusiasm.

(c) Differential Piece Wage System : The Scientific Technique of Differential Piece Rate System Emphasizes on paying different Rate of Wage for Efficient and Inefficient Employees . The Technique of Differential Wage Rate System insists on : 

– Paying different Rate of Wage to Efficient and Inefficient Employees. 

– Extra Wages Paid to Efficient Employees will Motivate them to remain efficient. 

– Extra Wages Paid to Efficient Employees will Motivate Inefficient Employees to come in the Category of Efficient Employees. 

– When Payment is given according to Number of Units Produced . Automatically the Production will be Maximized.

To conduct or adopt differential wage system Taylor suggested that the company must fix a standard rate of wage for workers producing standard output or their target. The workers who produce more than the standard-target must be paid with a higher rate of wage and those who are producing less than standard output must be paid with a rate less than standard rate.

For example, if the standard target if 10 Units Per Day and Standard Rate is Rs 50 Per Unit : The Worker who is producing 10 units must be Paid Rs 500 (Standard Rate x Standard Output). The Worker who is producing more than Standard Output must be Rewarded by Paying more than Standard Rate say Rs 60 Per Unit .

So He will Receive Rs 12 x 60 = Rs 720 (Higher Output x Higher Rate)

The Worker who is producing Less than Standard Output must be Taxed and Penalized by Paying Less than Standard Rate say Rs 40 Per Unit . So he will receive Rs 8 x 40 = Rs 320 (Lower Output x Lower Rate).This Difference in Wages will Motivate the workers to become efficient and earn more.

1. Unity of command – According to this principle, an employee should receive orders and instructions from one superior only. For example, if there is more than one superior, each may want that work is carried out according to his instructions. The subordinate will be confused regarding whose instructions he should follow. Also, there is a possibility of conflict among superiors regarding how the work should be accomplished. In the process, work performance is likely to suffer. Besides, when there is unity of command, it is easy to fix responsibility for mistakes. 

2. Equity – Principle of equity implies that managers should be fair and impartial while dealing with their subordinates. The principle of equity suggests that similar treatment is assured to people in similar positions. For example, workers performing similar jobs should be paid the same wage rate. Equity is essential to create and maintain cordial relations between managers and subordinates.

“Principle is a Fundamental Statement or Truth providing a guide to the Thought or Action.” . Characteristics of Principles of Management are : 

• Universal Application : Principles of Management have Universal Applicability. It implies that Principles of Management can be applied in all types of organizations : Business or Non–business Public Sector or Private Sector, Manufacturing Sector or Service Sector and Small or Large throughout the world . 
• General Guidelines : Principles of Management just provide general guidelines to Managerial actions; they do not provide readymade solutions to the problems. This is so because Organizations have to work in a dynamic environment having complex factors and business realities may not completely match with the prescriptions of principles of Management Principles. 
• Formed by Practice and Experiments / Evolutionary: The Management Principles are developed only after deep and thorough research work. They are not developed overnight or they are not the personal feelings of any person. Proper observations and experiments are conducted before developing them. These are the expressions of deep experiences of the leaders of management thoughts. Therefore they are evolutionary in nature . 
• Flexibility : Principles of Management are Not Rigid, but Flexible. This is so because Principles of Management are Situation Bound and these Principles are Modified according to Situational Requirements. Thus, a Manager may Modify Principles of Management according to His own needs.
• Behavioural in Nature: Management Principles are formed to Guide and Influence the Behaviour of Employees . These Principles Insist on improving Relationship between Superior , Subordinates and All the Members of the Organization. They also establish relations between Human and Material Resources . E.g. Princople of Discipline Improves Commitment of Employees towards the Organization and Principle of Espirit-de-Corps mold the Behaviour of Employees towards Team Spirit . 
• Based on Cause and Effect Relationship: Principle of Management establishes the Relationship between Cause and Effect by Prescribing “What Effect will result, if a particular Principle of Management is Applied in a Given Situation”. However, the Cause Effect Relationship is in a Probable way because these are Applied on Human Beings .

(a) Unity of Command : According to this principle an employee should receive orders from one boss only because if he is receiving orders from more than one boss then he will get confused and will not be able to understand that whose orders must be executed first and on the other hand, if employees is receiving orders from more bosses he gets chance to give excuses by saying that he was busy in executing the orders of other boss. To avoid confusion and to give no chance of excuse to employee, the orders must come from one boss only. If there are more bosses it can create problem of ego-clash among the superiors as every superior will want his order must be executed by the employee. 

E.g. If employees of Production Department is asked to go Slow in Production to maintain Quality Standard by the Production in charge and Sales in charge instructs the employee to fasten the production to meet the pending orders. In this situation employee will get confused as to whose instructions must be followed by him.

Positive Effect : 

• Achievement of Organizational Goal. 
• Efforts get Unified in One Direction 

Consequences of Violation of this Principle : 

• Lack of Co-ordination. 
• Wastage of Efforts and Resources 
• Difficult to Achieve Organization Goals .

(b) Subordination of Individual Interest to General Interest : According to this Principle the Interest of organization must supersede the interest of individuals or employees. In the organization all the employees are working with some objective and there is always an objective of organization. If the objectives of individual are in the same direction of organization then there is no problem but if the objectives of both the groups are in different directions then manager must try to reconcile individual interest with organizational goal and if it is not possible then individual goal must be sacrificed for achieving organizational Goal .The goal of organization must not be sacrificed because individuals will be able to achieve their objectives only when organization prospers . E.g. If individual’s objective is to earn more remuneration and organization is going through the situation of financial crisis and has the objective of cutting down the expenses. In this situation the individual must sacrifice his interest as when organization will come out from financial crisis then he can achieve his objective . 

Positive Effect : 

• Achievement of Organizational Goal. 
• Coordination between Individual and Organizational Goal.

Consequences of Violation of this Principle : 

• No Achievement of Organizational Goal. 
• Even Employees will also Suffer in Long Run.

(c) Stability of Personnel : It refers to No Frequent Termination and Transfer . According to this Principle , the Management must provide the feeling of Job Security among the Employees because with the feeling of Insecurity for the Job , the Employees cannot contribute their Maximum . Frequent Turnover of Employees is bad for organization and such decision must be taken when they are almost Unavoidable . Not only turnover , but frequent transfer or rotation should also be avoided because it takes sometime to a person to learn and get settled on a job and by the time he gets settled and he receives transfer order then it will be wastage of resources and employees will not be able to contribute their best for the organization . 

Positive Effect : 

• Improves Efficiency Level of Employees. 
• No Wastage of Time and Resources.

Consequences of Violation of this Principle :

• Wastage of Resources in Learning the New Job.
• Frustration and Dissatisfaction among Employees

The convention for naming these enzymes is that the first letter to the name comes from the genes and the second two letters come from species of the prokaryotic cell from which they are isolated e.g., EcoRI comes from Escherichia coli RY.

(a) Here Controlling is highlighted and identified as the Management Function.

(b) Controlling Process may help the Organization to prevent Deviation. It can Minimize Deviation by taking Actions and Decisions that reduce their recurrence. 

Controlling Process can be defined as: 

Standards Setting Performance: Standards are the criteria, set in both quantitative and qualitative terms against which actual performance can be measured. Standard are the bench marks towards which efforts of entire Organization are directed. In order to determine whether the actual performance is proceeding in the right way standards are required. As far as possible, standards must be set up in numerical or measurable terms.

Measurement of Actual Performance: Once the standards have been determined, the next step is to measure the actual performance. The various techniques for measuring are sample checking, performance reports, personal observation etc. However, in order to facilitate easy comparison, the performance should be measured on same basis that the standards have.

Comparing Actual Performance with Standards: The standards should be in quantitative terms of facilitate such comparison. This steps involves comparing the actual performance with standards laid down in order to find the deviations . Deviation means Difference between Actual Performance and Planned Performance. Deviations are of two types : Positive Deviation and Negative Deviation.

Analyzing Deviations: After identifying the deviations, various causes for same are analysed and the most exact cause or causes are identified in order to take corrective measures. While analyzing the deviations, ‘Critical Point Control’ and ‘Management by Exception’ techniques are used to save time. 

Taking Corrective Actions: The final step in the process of controlling involves taking corrective action. If the deviations are within acceptable limits, no corrective measure is required. However, if the deviations exceed the acceptable limits, they should be immediately brought to the notice of the management for taking corrective measures, especially in the important and critical areas.

(i) Histamines: These are chemicals which cause inflammatory responses. 

(ii) Interferons: These are glycoproteins which protect non-infected cells from further viral infection. 

(iii) B-cells: These produce proteins called antibodies in response to pathogens into the blood to fight with them.

(i)  plt.bar(x,y) 

(ii)  plt.show()

Advertisement is an action to get the public attention towards a product or business through electronic media, or paid announcements in broad cast. Advertising can be done for a product, idea, person, or an organization. However, its importance lies in its containing only one single message that all the audience would interpret alike. Advertising is a very important part of marketing. It is all around us, we can’t run away from it. Wherever you look you see an advertisement; at your home you watch TV, and on the street you see billboards. These days, TV and its advertisement are part of most families’ daily life. It persuades people to buy their products. Customers get influenced by several types of advertisement to buy a product. These types are shown in different methods, like TV commercial campaigns, print media campaigns, billboards that are put on the streets, posters, product placement in films and TV programs, newspapers, magazines, and the internet. 

But are these advertisements really useful? Are they not wasting our time and money? 

Infact advertisement is a waste of time and money. These advertisements cover a lot of space in newspapers and magazines also. It is a mere wastage of paper which we get after cutting down of lots of trees. It means these advertisements are wasting our natural resources also. Most of the celebrities that are hired for these advertisements, don't even use the product. It is simply to mislead the consumer. Most of the time they are not even ethical. The brand producers are spending lakhs and crores of rupees in advertising their products without even bothered whether it is useful or harmful for the consumers. The same money can be used for helping the poor and the needy. And the costumers are so much engrossed in watching these advertisements that they do not care about the money they are wasting on these useless products. They are using these expensive products because they take these advertisements seriously as many of the celebrities are advertising them. People are blindly following these advertisements spending their useful time in watching these advertisements. The same time can be used in doing something sensible. 

(A) Pancreas

(A) Ethano.              .

Generation Gap

With the help of this speech, I would try to let you know about one of the issue nowadays . 

Generation gap is a gapping between the current generation childrens and their parents or grandparents. There are conflicts in their thinking. The thinking is totally different from each other and that's what something which makes a difference. 

Generation gap can be sometime bad for the two people living in the same house. There views won't match which will cause problems. The thing which will be right to one generation will be totally wrong for the other one. 

This thing somewhat affects the relationship between them. So we should atleast try to make things better for the two generation and try to solve the problems. They should try to understand each other and respect each other's thinking. 

Highest bandwidth

Complete immunity to noise

Negligible attenuation upto 50km

No electromagnetic interference

Most secure

Bluetooth, reason is Optical Fiber, Co-axial Cable and Twisted pair cable are examples of guided media, and where as Bluetooth is wireless that is unguided media.

Service sector

(a) Tourism has become the world’s single largest tertiary activity as it registered total jobs of 250 million and total revenue 40% of the total GDP. Many local people are employed to provide services—meals, accommodation, transport, serving etc. 

(b) Tourism fosters the growth of infrastructure industries, retail trading and craft industries. 

(c) In some regions, tourism is seasonal because the vacation period is dependent on favourable weather conditions but many regions are open all the year round.

(a) A serving of a kiwi fruit offers twice the vitamin C of an orange, as much potassium as a banana and the fiber of a bowl of whole grain cereal-all for less than 100 calories ! 

(b) Kiwi has been considered as a ‘nutritional allstar’ as Rutgers University researchers found that kiwifruit has the best nutrient density of 21 commonly consumed fruits. It is sky high in both soluble and insoluble fiber which are essential for promoting heart health, regulating digestion and lowering cholestrol levels. 

(c) A kiwi fruit supplies our eyes with the protective lutein, a carotenoid that gets concentrated in eye tissues and helps protect against harmful free radicals.

(d) We should let it ripen at room temperature for three to five days. To speed up the ripening process, we can also place it in a paper bag with an apple or banana.

(a) A serving of a kiwi fruit offers twice the vitamin C of an orange, as much potassium as a banana and the fiber of a bowl of whole grain cereal-all for less than 100 calories!

(b) kiwi has been considered as a 'nutritional ail-star' as Rutgers University researchers found that kiwi fruit has the best nutrient density of 21 commonly consumed fruits. It is sky high in both soluble and insoluble fibre which are essential for promoting heart health, regulating digestion and lowering cholestrol levels. 

(c) A kiwi fruit supplies our eves with the protective lutein, a carotenoid that gets concentrated in eye tissues and helps protect against harmful free radicals. 

(d) We should let it ripen at room temperature for three to five days. To speed up the ripening process, we can also place it in a paper bag with an apple or banana.

(a) Power foods are foods which provide rich levels of nutrients like fibre, potassium and minerals. 

(b) Power foods should be prepared properly using season-fresh foods and by identifying one's choice of flavour among power foods. 

(c) Onions and garlic help in the absorption of iron and zinc from the chickpeas. 

(d) A quick way to prepare chickpea and onions is to make a chickpea salad with chopped onions, chaat masala and cilantro. 

(e) Yoghurt is full of proteins that help preserve muscle mass and bananas are packed with carbohydrates that help in refuelling energy and preventing muscle soreness. 

(f) Green tea contains catechins which are effective in halting oxidative damage of cells. 

(g) Combining green tea with lemon juice helps the body to absorb catechins more easily. 

(h) Power foods can be enjoyed in a wholesome way by including them in our daily diet to increase muscle development. 

(i) Yoghurt is very beneficial to our body as it is packed with the protein that help to preserve muscle mass.

Functioning of Mass Media : 

1. Press censorship took place which banned freedom of press and newspapers were supposed to prior approval before they publish any material i.e. RSS and Jamaat-i- Islami were banned. 

2. Protests, strikes and public agitations were also banned. 

3. Various fundamental rights were also suspended including even Right to move to court for restoration of the Fundamental Rights. 

4. Kannada writer Shivarama Karanth awarded with Padma Bhushan and Hindi writer Phanishwar Nath Renu with Padmashri returned their awards in protest against suspension of democracy. 

5. Newspapers mainly Indian Express, and the Statesman protested against censorship by leaving blank spaces where news items were censored.

Since late 1980s, BJP’s political support started gaining strength. Since then its rise has been impressive indeed. The major trends in the electoral performance of BJP since 1989 have been quite significant. Its political ideology has also gained widespread support. 

Electoral performance 

a. In the elections of 1989, the National Front under Sh. VP Singh came to power supported by left front and BJP from outside because they wanted to keep congress out of power. This government due to coalition pressures came to an end in 1990. In 1996, BJP minority government was formed for a short period and collapsed as it failed to generate majority of support. From March 1998 to October 1999, BJP and others formed an alliance NDA under the leadership of Sh. Atal Bihari Vajpayee. In 1999, midterm elections NDA alliance led by BJP came to power. In the Sixteenth Lok Sabha elections held in 2014, BJP won 282 seats and formed the government under the leadership of Sh. Narendra Modi. 

b. BJP’s Hindutva Ideology : BJP’s Hindutva ideology has received large support from different stratas of Indian Society. Its stand on Shah Bano Case and later support on construction of Ram temple at Ayodhya disputed area brought huge electoral success for BJP. BJP also organizes ‘Rath Yatra’ from Somnath in Gujarat to Ayodhya in UP. This also increased the popularity of BJP. 

c. BJP’s support for new economic policies – liberalization and globalization has led to huge economic development for India. Moreover, BJP’s stand against corruption has also helped in gaining support from the masses. 

i. end of congress system 

ii. mandal issue 

iii. globalization –the economic reforms 

iv. Ayodhya issue 

v. he assassination of Rajiv Gandhi in May 1991 led to a change in leadership of the Congress party. He was assassinated by a Sri Lankan Tamil linked to the LTTE. 

(i) The above extract signifies the non-alignment policy of India.

(ii) When foreign relations go out of the hands of a country into the charge of somebody else, to that extent, one is not independent. 

(iii) When India achieved its freedom and started forming its foreign policy, it followed non-alignment policy to pursue its national interests within international context.

(i) Globalisation results in an erosion of state capacity. It means the ability of government to do what they do, e.g., when major economic events take place, their effect is felt outside their immediate local national or regional environment at the global level.

(ii) The concept of‘welfare state’ is giving way to minimalist state across the world. The minimalist state performs certain core functions such as the maintenance of law and order and the security of its citizens.

(iii) Market becomes the main determinant of economic and social priorities. The entry and the increased role of multinational companies across the world leads to a reduction in the capacity of governments to take self decisions.

Main Outcome : 

• Chandigarh would be transferred to Punjab. 

• To appoint a separate commission to resolve border dispute between Punjab and Haryana. 

• To set up a tribunal to settle down the sharing of Ravi-Beas river water among Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan. 

• To provide agreement for compensation to better treatment to those affected by militancy in Punjab. 

• To withdraw the Armed Forces Special Power Act in Punjab. 

But peace could not be established easily in Punjab and resulted as follows : 

• It led to many excesses by police and violation of human rights. 

• It fragmented the Akali Dal. 

• The President’s Rule was imposed and normal political process was suspended. 

• Hence, political process could not be restored in this atmosphere. Even during elections in 1992, only 24% electors turned out to vote. Consequently above mentioned added to tension between Punjab and its neighbouring states.

The factors responsible for Pakistan’s failure in building a stable democracy are explained below : 

1. The social dominance of the military, clergy and landowning aristocracy has led to the frequent overthrow of elected governments and the establishment of military governments. 

2. Pakistan’s conflict with India has made the pro-military groups more powerful. These groups have often said that political parties and democracy in Pakistan are flawed and Pakistan security would be harmed by selfish- minded parties and chaotic democracy. 

3. The lack of genuine international support for democratic rule in Pakistan has further encouraged the military to continue its dominance. 

4. The United States and other western countries have also encouraged the military’s authoritarian rule for their own reasons such as fear of ‘global Islamic terrorism’ and apprehension of falling of Pakistan’s nuclear weapons into the hands of terrorist groups. Thus, they see the military regime as protector of their interests in West Asia and South Asia. 

India was vocal of Bangladesh’s independence and played an imfluential role in the establishment of the country. India is an important neighbour for Bangladesh due to strong Geographic, cultural, historic, and commercial ties. Bangladesh has brought itself to a momentous growth period after decades of overhauling and economic reforms. Due to Bangladesh’s strategical position in the region the aggressive expansionist China and unpredictable nature of US shrouds the region are looking to seize the opportunity and expand their strength in the region. India has emerged as a ‘friend for all seasons’ for Bangladesh as India growing regional and international influence cannot be ignored. India-Bangladesh share a love-hate relationship but that does not deter both the countries from cooperating on several issues.

Because : 

(i) Economic Influence : 

• Three times larger share in World trade than the US. 

• Its currency Euro can pose a threat to the dominance of US Dollar. 

• The EU functions as an important bloc in World Trade Organisation (WTO). 

(ii) Political Influence : 

• Two members of the E U, Britain and France hold permanent seats in Security Council to influence UN policies. 

• The EU also includes various non-permanent members of UNSC. 

• The European Union plays an influential role in diplomacy and negotiations except military force i.e. EU’s dialogue with China on Human Rights and environmental degradation is remarkable. 

(iii) Military Influence : 

• The EU’s combined armed forces are second largest in world. 

• Its total military expenditure is second to the US. 

• Its two important members—Britain and France also experience nuclear arsenals of 550 nuclear warheads. 

• The EU is world’s second most important source of space and communication technology

China had adopted the Soviet model of an economy. Despite development, China faced the economic crisis as industrial production was not growing fast, international trade was minimal. Under these situations, some major policy decisions were taken- 

1. China established relations with the US in 1972. 

2. China proposed four areas of modernization as agriculture, industry, science, and technology in 1973. 

3. Open door policy was introduced to generate higher productivity by the investment of capital and technology from abroad. 

4. The privatization of agriculture and industry in 1982 and 1998. 

5. China set Special Economic Zones to remove trade barriers. 

6. The integration of the Chinese economy and inter-dependencies has enabled China to have considerable influence with its trade partners. 

7. The open door policy has stabilized the ASEAN economy. 

8. China’s outward looking for investment and aid policies in Latin America and Africa are projecting China as a global player.

The US and USSR were responsible for Cold War. The world became unipolar in 1991 after disintegration of USSR.

• Superpowers used their military power to bring countries into their respective alliances. 

• Soviet Union used its influence in Eastern Europe so that the eastern half of Europe remained within its sphere of influence. 

• In East and Southeast Asia and in West Asia, the US built an alliance called South East Asian Treaty Organisation (SEATO) and the Central Treaty Organisation (CENTO). 

• The Soviet Union responded by having close relations with regional countries such as North Vietnam, North Korea and Iraq.

The three challenges faced by political parties in India are: 

(i) Lack of Internal democracy:

(a) All over the world, there is the tendency of political parties towards the concentration of power in one or few leaders at the top.

(b) Parties do not keep membership register.

(c) They do not conduct internal elections regularly. 

(d) Ordinary members of the party do not have sufficient information as to what happens inside the party. 

(ii) No Transparency: 

(a) Since most political parties do not practice open and transparent procedures for their functioning, there are very few ways for an ordinary worker to rise to the top in a party. 

(b) Those who happen to be the leaders are in a position of unfair advantage to famous people close to them or even their family members.

(c) In many parties, the top positions are always controlled by the members of one family. 

(iii) Money and Muscle Power:

(a) Since parties are focussed only on winning elections, they tend to use shortcuts to win elections. 

(b) They tend to nominate those candidates who have or can raise a lot of money. 

(c) Rich people and companies who give funds to the parties tend to have an influence on the policies and decisions of the party.

Those parties that lose in the elections play the role of opposition to the parties in power :
(i) Voicing different views.
(ii) Criticizing government for its failure or wrong policies.
(iii) Opposition parties also mobilize opposition to the government.

Those parties that lose in the elections play the role of opposition to the parties in power : 

 (i) Voicing different views. 

(ii) Criticizing government for its failure or wrong policies. 

(iii) Opposition parties also mobilize opposition to the government.

‘Bharatiya Janata Party’ (BJP) gets inspiration from India’s ancient culture and values. 

Four important features : 

(i) Cultural nationalism or ‘Hindutva’ is an important element in its conception of Indian Nationhood and politics. 

(ii) The party wants full territorial and political integration of Jammu and Kashmir with India. 

(iii) A uniform civil code for all people living in the country irrespective of religion and ban on religious conversions.

(iv) Its support base increased substantially in the 1990s.

There are certain conditions which make an election democratic.

These are as follows:

(i) Everyone should be able to choose, i.e. everyone should have one vote and every vote should equal value. Universal Adult Franchise.

(ii) There should be parties and candidates to choose from, freedom to contest and a wide choice for people.

(iii) Elections must be held at regular intervals.

(iv) Elections should be held in a fair and free atmosphere to be democratic.

(v) Elections should be conducted in a free and fair manner and people should have foil freedom to vote for any candidate they like.

The following list in a progressive order, but the order can change depending on each playwright’s characteristic style and preferences for writing.

1. Coming up with thought/theme/ideas to be expressed through the work.

2. Determining the genre and style of the work 

3. Outlining basic action of the work and creating a plot.

4. Establishing the structure of the play and overall framework

5. The development of characters presented in the work.

6. The creation of dialogue and the language of the characters.

7. Creating music: - This can involve the rhythm of the language or actual music composition and the lyrics of the songs.

8.  Establishing spectacle: - The visual and environmental elements of the work.

9. Research of subject matter and relevant issues presented in the play.

Bhartendu Harish Chandra

The early development of modern Indian theatre can be traced to the work of Bhartendu Harish Chandra (1850–1885), a theatre actor, director, manager, and playwright based in Varanasi (Banaras), who is also the father of modern Hindi literature as, in his short life of 35 years, he wrote eighteen plays. He always tried to represent India’s poverty, sufferings of the people, human need and dependency, cruel exploitation and the middle class conflictions through his great writings such as the journalism, several dramas, essays, poetry and short stories. Well-versed in folk theatre styles and oral literary traditions of the region, however his principle influence was the ancient Sanskrit drama, many of which he translated and established a stream of dramaturgy which has run parallel to the development of the Western drama, though he even translated a Shakespearean play. Rooted in the rising tide of Indian nationalism, he is most noted for his politically charged plays like, Andheri Nagari (City of Darkness) written in 1881, a clear satire on the British Raj, as it implied that a society, which tolerates a lawless state is doomed to fail, and Neel Darpan (Indigo Mirror) on the plight of indigo-plantation workers under the British Raj, which used the Dramatic Performances Act of 1876 to ban many such subversive plays.Bhartendu Harish Chandra

The early development of modern Indian theatre can be traced to the work of Bhartendu Harish Chandra (1850–1885), a theatre actor, director, manager, and playwright based in Varanasi (Banaras), who is also the father of modern Hindi literature as, in his short life of 35 years, he wrote eighteen plays. He always tried to represent India’s poverty, sufferings of the people, human need and dependency, cruel exploitation and the middle class conflictions through his great writings such as the journalism, several dramas, essays, poetry and short stories. Well-versed in folk theatre styles and oral literary traditions of the region, however his principle influence was the ancient Sanskrit drama, many of which he translated and established a stream of dramaturgy which has run parallel to the development of the Western drama, though he even translated a Shakespearean play. Rooted in the rising tide of Indian nationalism, he is most noted for his politically charged plays like, Andheri Nagari (City of Darkness) written in 1881, a clear satire on the British Raj, as it implied that a society, which tolerates a lawless state is doomed to fail, and Neel Darpan (Indigo Mirror) on the plight of indigo-plantation workers under the British Raj, which used the Dramatic Performances Act of 1876 to ban many such subversive plays.

Andheri Nagari Chaupat Raja

A boy once seeks the advice of his guru about going to a certain country to seek his living. The guru tells him not to go there by saying one line about that country "Andheri Nagri Chaupat Raja; TakehSerBhaji, TakehSerKhaja". He tells the boy that there is a fixed price for spinach and dates and everything. The citizens lack intelligence and it is an undesirable place to live. The young and unwise boy goes away.

In this strange land, one night, four brothers plan a theft and try to breach the wall of the house of a rich family. The thieves bring the wall down, and in the process are killed by the falling bricks. The mother of the thieves is angry and files a lawsuit in the court. In arguing her case before the judge, she claims that her sons were merely following their profession and the wrongly constructed wall caused their death, for which the homeowner is liable. The judge following the strange code of justice asks the homeowner why he should not be sentenced to death for the loss of the thieves' lives. The frightened homeowner uses the defense that, those who constructed the wall are the guilty party and thus the court frees him. The bricklayer is then summoned to the court and he says it is not his fault as he done his job well and the cement must have been of poor quality. The wrath of the judge and his distorted justice then descends on the cement mixer. He is accused of pouring too much water during the mixing. The cement manufacturer admits that it happened, but attributes it to his talk with and greeting of a passing mullah. While greeting the mullah, he forgot the mixing ratio of the cement and thus diluted it into a weak cement mixture. The judge calls the mullah. The honest man has no excuse and the judge pronounces death by hanging for the convicted mullah. The country’s legally fixed size noose is brought to hang the guilty offender. Whatever the fault of the mullah, he is a god-fearing man who has no committed any sin. He is quite lean. His neck is thin and his head on the small side. The noose kept slipping off his head and neck. The irritated judge then gives a decision that since the circumference of the noose is unalterable by the national code, the only way for justice to be done, is to hang the first person whom the noose fits.

The newly arrived fat boy, feasting on the cheap dates is watching the show. His stout neck fits the noose. He is to be hanged in the public square the next morning. The desperate disciple boy sent an urgent message to his guru. The guru quickly arrives early morning at the public square and causes uproar by insisting that he be hanged instead of his disciple. The judge was taken aback at this strange demand, and, even the mullah suspected something mystery. They kept asking the guru for the reason and he refused. The judge then threatened him that if he refused he would be beheaded. The guru pleaded that he must be hanged. The guru confessed that on this day of the new moon, anyone who is hanged goes straight to heaven.The judge, then insisted since he is the judge, he has to decide who should be hanged. The judge decides ‘he’ (judge) be hanged himself. In the meantime, the news reaches the king. He changes the scene and directs that his monkey be hanged. The relieved guru and disciple promptly cross the border of the strange kingdom, vowing never to return. The play was translated in English by S S Misri.

Rabindranath Tagore

At twenty, he wrote his first drama-opera: Valmiki Pratibha (The Genius of Valmiki). In it, the sage Valmiki overcomes his sins, is blessed, and compiles the epic ‘Ramayana.’ Through it, Tagore explores a wide range of dramatic styles and emotions, including usage of revamped kirtans and adaptation of traditional English and Irish folk melodies as drinking songs. Another play, ‘Dak Ghar’ (The Post Office), describes the child, Amal defying his stuffy and puerile confines by ultimately ‘fall asleep’, hinting at his physical death. A story with borderless appeal—gleaning rave reviews in Europe—Dak Ghar dealt with death as, in Tagore's words, "spiritual freedom" from "the world of hoarded wealth and certified creeds".

Tagore’s other works fuse lyrical flow and emotional rhythm into a tight focus on a core idea, a break from prior Bengali drama. Tagore sought "the play of feeling and not of action". In 1890 he released what is regarded as his finest drama: Visarjan (Sacrifice). It is an adaptation of Rajarshi, an earlier novella of his. "A forthright denunciation of a meaningless and cruel superstitious rite", the Bengali originals feature intricate subplots and prolonged monologues that give way to historical events in seventeenth-century Udaipur. The devout Maharaja of Tripura is pitted against the wicked head priest, Raghupati. His latter dramas were more philosophical and allegorical in nature; these include Dak Ghar. Another is Tagore's Chandalika (Untouchable Girl), which was modelled on an ancient Buddhist legend describing how Ananda, the Gautama Buddha's disciple, asks a tribal girl for some water to drink. 

In Rakta Karabi ("Red" or "Blood Oleanders"), a kleptocrat rules over the residents of Yakshapuri. He and his retainers exploit his subjects—who are benumbed by alcohol and numbered like inventory—by forcing them to mine gold for him. The naive maiden-heroine, Nandini, rallies her subject-compatriots to defeat the greed of the realm's upper class—with the morally roused king's belated help. Skirting the "good-vs-evil" trope, the work pits a vital and joyous lesemajeste against the monotonous fealty of the king's varletry, giving rise to an allegorical struggle akin to that found in Animal Farm or Gulliver's Travels. The original, though prized in Bengal, long failed to spawn a ‘free and comprehensible’ translation, and its archaic and sonorous didacticism failed to attract interest from abroad. Chitrangada, Chandalika, and ‘Shyama’ are other key plays that have dance-drama adaptations, are known as Nritya Natya.

Dak Ghar

The story is about Amal, an eight year old boy who is terminally ill but confined indoors by the family physician. His only contact with the outside world is through his window. From there he watches village life, engages papers-by in eager conversation from the vantage of his open window and, fascinated by a new post office visible in the distance, gives his toys to some boys so that he may see them playing from his window, and is promised by the flower-seller's daughter, Sudha, that she will bring him some flowers. From the watchman, he learns that the big building with the flag is His Majesty's new Post Office, and, the watchman suggests, the King himself may send Amal a letter. He develops a fancy that he will receive a letter from the King, an obviously allegorical personage; He makes a new world for himself, by his imagination and insatiable curiosity. The village headman hands Amal a blank sheet of paper, which he claims to be a letter from His Majesty. Amal dreams of being a royal postman himself, delivering the King's messages all around. While he awaits a visit from the King, another doctor comes and orders doors and windows to be opened, so that the stars may shine in. As Amal slowly falls asleep, perhaps to die, Sudha keeps her promise, and brings him some flowers. Amal represents the soul that has received the call of the open road. The play is a poignant tribute to the human spirit that gathers hope, even where there seems to be none. It symbolizes the whole human experience of the uncorrupted soul with its yearning and flights of imagination being trapped in the limitations of the body.

Vijay Tendulkar

Vijay Tendulkar was born on 6 January 1928 in Kolhapur, Maharashtra, where his father held a clerical job and ran a small publishing business. The literary environment at home prompted young Vijay to take up writing. He wrote his first story at age 6. He grew up watching western plays and felt inspired to write plays himself. At age 11, he wrote, directed, and acted in his first play. At age 14, he participated in the 1942 Indian freedom movement, leaving his studies.

The latter alienated him from his family and friends. Writing then became his outlet, though most of his early writings were of a personal nature, and not intended for publication.

In 1972, Tendulkar wrote the acclaimed play, Ghasiram Kotwal, which dealt with political violence. The play is a political satire created as a musical drama set in 18th century Pune. It combined traditional Marathi folk music and drama with contemporary theatre techniques, creating a new paradigm for Marathi theatre. The play demonstrates Tendulkar's deep study of group psychology. ‘Ghasiram Kotwal’ remains one of the longest-running plays in the history of Indian theatre.

Ghashiram Kotwal

Ghashiram Kotwal a play by Tendulkar showcased the corruption in the society during the Peshwa regime. His character of Ghashiram is a depiction of the working class in Pune and how the Brahmin supremacy prevalent then lead to the oppression of the lower classes.Tendulkar has subtly shown what power does to men and how they become inhuman and greedy just to achieve it. The play has a historic context. The story begins with Ghashiram, a Kanauji coming to the city of Pune to try his luck and gain some money from the then rich city. His first appearance is in Bavankhanni, Pune, where he is dancing as a foil to Gulabi, a Lavani dancer. Beginning as gulabi’s servant, he graduates to becoming the servant of Nana Phadavnis, the antagonist who is the Chancellor of the Peshwa. Initially, Ghashiram is portrayed as an obedient servant to Nana but as time goes by, due to the ill treatment he gets from Nana, he becomes power hungry. He goes to the extent of sacrificing his teen daughter, Lalitagouri, to the old Nana only to secure the respectable post of the Kotwal.

Ghashiram who is oppressed initially now becomes the oppressor as power evokes a need for the dominance in him. Tendulkar portrays the evils in the society during the Peshwa rule, corruption, power structure and the ignorance of the masses.

All in all, Ghashiram Kotwal is a timeless piece of writing. The issues that are primarily dealt with in the play still remain the same even after so many years. Women still continue to be the ruled ones and the caste conflict has now become the class conflict, where the rich dominate the poor and the cycle continues. It highlights the harsh reality that even when times change, human nature remains the same. Greed for money was, is and will always a part of human nature.

In 2004, he wrote a single-act play, ‘His Fifth Woman’his first play in the English language as a sequel to his earlier exploration of the plight of women in ‘Sakharam Binder’. In his writing career spanning more than five decades, Tendulkar has written 27 full-length plays and 25 one-act plays. Several of his plays have proven to be Marathi theatre classics. His plays have been translated and performed in many Indian languages.

By providing insight into major social events and political upheavals during his adult life, Tendulkar became one of the strongest radical political voices in Maharashtra in recent times. While contemporary writers were cautiously exploring the limits of social realism, he jumped into the cauldron of political radicalism and courageously exposed political hegemony of the powerful and the hypocrisies in the Indian social mindset. His powerful expression of human angst has resulted in his simultaneously receiving wide public acclaim and high censure from the orthodox and the politically powerful. Many of Tendulkar's plays derived inspiration from real-life incidents or social upheavals.

PLAY - Silence! The Court is in Session. (Shantata! Court chalu aahe – Marathi) 

The play has since been translated into 16 languages in India and abroad. The BBC showed its English version, filmed by Satyadev Dubey. Actor-director, Om Shivpuri, directed the Hindi translation of the play as Khamosh! Adaalat Jaari Hai. The play had his wife Sudha Shivpuri in the lead role and is considered an important production in the theatre history of India. 

Mohan Rakesh

Mohan Rakesh was born as Madan Mohan Guglani on January 8, 1925, in Amritsar, Punjab. His father, a lawyer, died when he was sixteen.

M.A. in English and Hindi from Punjab University, Lahore.

He started his career as a teacher, and he taught in two colleges and a school, edited a short story magazine before deciding to write full-time. His play, Ashadh Ka Ek Din (One Day in Aashad) (1958), play a major role in reviving Hindi theatre in 1960s and AdheAdhure (The Incomplete Ones or Halfway House 1959) are highly regarded. His debut play Ashadh Ka Ek Din was first performed by a Kolkata-based Hindi theatre group Anamika, under director, ShyamanandJalan 1960) and subsequently by Ebrahim Alkazi at National School of Drama, Delhi in 1962, which established Mohan Rakesh as the first modern Hindi playwright. His plays continue to be performed and receive acclaim worldwide.

"Leheron Ke Raj Hans' (The Swans of the Waves), the most noted play of Mohan Rakesh,an ancient Buddhist tale on the renunciation of the Buddha, and its after effects on his close family.His struggle over different versions of the play lasted for nearly 20 years, before creating his masterpiece. Prominent Indian directors Om Shivpuri, Shyamanand Jalan, Arvind Gaur and Ram Gopal Bajaj directed this play.

Mohan Rakesh's three plays Ashad Ka Ek Din, Laharon Ke Rajhans and Adhe Adhure are famous; they were a rage in the world of theatre. His plays were the first choice of the directors of that time.

Play – Adhe Adhure:

Mohan Rakesh's Adhe Adhure is probably one of the most significant plays to have been written in the Hindi language. Its appearance on the theatre scene in 1968 not only caused a minor sensation, but also gave rise to a new trend in playwriting.

The play is about a five-member family caught in the vicious net of destitution. Unable to come to terms with the situation, they become tearing, ranting sub-humans almost living off each other's misery.

While the treatment of the situation is dramatically powerful, it is the searing language, the use of poignant silences pierced by verbal whip-lashes that is Rakesh's creative contribution. The play has been enacted in many languages besides Hindi. But so overpowering has been the form, that no director has ever attempted a reinterpretation of the content for fear of sacrilege. Adhe Adhure are a tragic comedy on the life of middle class people.

Dharmveer Bharati

Dr. Dharamvir Bharati was born in Allahabad on 25 December 1926 was a renowned Hindi poet, author, playwright and a social thinker of India. He did his MA in Hindi from Allahabad University in 1946 and won the Chintamani Ghosh Award for securing the highest marks in Hindi.

He was the Chief-Editor of the popular Hindi weekly magazine Dharmayug 1960 till his death in 1997. Dr. Dharamvir Bharati made a deep impact on Hindi literature and is considered as one of the most renowned Hindi poets and writers of India.

Bharati was awarded the Padma Shree for literature in 1972 by the Government of India. His novel Gunaho Ka Devta became a classic. Bharati’s Suraj ka Satwan Ghoda is considered a unique experiment in story-telling. Andha Yug, a play set in the time immediately after the Mahabharata war, is another classic that is enacted very often by drama groups.He was awarded the Sangeet Natak Akademi Award in playwriting (Hindi) in 1988

Play in Poetry “Andha yug”: Andha Yug (The Age of Blindness): Poetic play, structured on the events in the Mahabharata, Andha Yug focuses on the last day of the Mahabharata war. It is a powerful metaphorical theatrical work, performed by Ebrahim Alkazi, M.K. Raina, Ratan Thiyam, Arvind Gaur, Ram Gopal Bajaj, Mohan Maharishi, Bhanu Bharti and many other Indian theatre directors.

Andha Yug, the play begins on the eighteenth and last day of the Great Mahabharata War, which devastated the kingdom of the Kauravas, the feuding cousins of the Pandavas. Their capital, the once magnificent city of Hastinapur lay burning, in ruins, the battlefield of Kurukshetra was strewn with corpses, and skies filled with vultures and death lament. Fatalities were on both sides as the cousins killed each other. The survivors were left grieving and enraged as they continued to blameeach other for the destruction even divine will, yet no one was willing to view it as a consequence of their own moral choices.

Just the Ashwat thama, son of guru Dronacharya, in one last act of revenge against the Pandavas, releases the ultimate weapon of destruction, the Brahmastra, which promises to annihilate the world, yet no one comes forward to condemn it. Ethics and humanity have been the first casualties of the war. Krishna, who acted to mediate between the cousins prior to war, remains the moral centre of the play. Even in his failure he presents options that are both ethical and just and reminds that the higher or sacred way is always accessible to human beings even in the worst of times. The play ends with the death of Krishna.

Andha Yug highlights the perils of self-enchantment in his anti-war allegory. It explores human capacity for moral action, reconciliation, and goodness in times of atrocity and reveals what happens when individuals succumb to the cruelty and cynicism of a blind, dispirited age. When a ruler, epitomized by a blind Dhritarashtra, both physically and also by his ambition for his son Duryodhana, along with an equally blinded society, fail to recognise its own shadow side and that of their loved ones. It also elaborates on the consequences, when a society fails to step out of the cycle of revenge and instead chooses a redemptive path, which is always available even in worst of scenarios, as shown by Krishna’s presence amidst the mindlessness of fellow human beings. It was only when they collectively reject the voice of wisdom that denigration of war step upon them, leading to a large scale bloodshed, hinting at the perils that await a society that turns away from its wisdom and instead succumbs to the logic of the moment that can be easily swayed by emotions. Bharati uses the war of Mahabharat to make an anti-war statement but also raises questions regarding moral uprightness in the wake of Partition-related atrocities, loss of faith and national identity. Some directors have even used it to bring out contemporary issues like the role of diplomacy in the present world.

Anton Pavlov Chekhov Anton 

Chekov was a Russian playwright who is considered as one of the greatest playwrights in realistic plays. As a dramatist, he produced four classical. He is considered as the greatest short story writer in the world. His four classical works are Seagul, Uncle Vanya, Three Sisters and Cherry Orchard. These plays were performed all over the world in many languages and directed by renowned directors. 

Chekhov renounced the theatre after the disastrous reception of The Seagull in 1896, but the play was revived to acclaim in 1898 by Constantin Stanislavski's Moscow Art Theatre, which subsequently also produced Chekhov's Uncle Vanya and premiered his last two plays, Three Sisters and The Cherry Orchard. These four works present a challenge to the acting ensemble as well as to audiences, because in place of conventional action Chekhov offers a ‘Theatre of Mood’ and a "submerged life in the text." Chekhov was advised and praised by Dmitry Grigorovich, who was a well-known writer in those days with words such as ”A real talent—a talent which places you in the front rank among writers in the new generation." 

To understand Chekov, it is important to understand the philosophy of his knowledge. The characters in Chekov’s plays do not have the ultimate truth. The relative, conditional nature of ideas and opinions, and of stereotypical ways of thinking and behaving; the refusal to regard an individual solution as absolute; and the baselessness of various claims to possession of the ’real truth’: these are constants in Chekhov’s world. In Chekhov’s characters are often, experiences with melancholy and nostalgia. 

Chekhov wrote about ordinary events and the relationships in small towns and villages. He used a variety of techniques, including choices of words, pacing and construction of a sentence which all lead to creating his characters and revealing their changing moods. In the letters that Chekhov sent to his writing contemporaries, as well as his family, he often discussed his work and ideas about story craft. His principle of writing is still relevant to this time. In May 10, 1886, his letter to his brother, Alexander, also a writer, Chekhov noted six principles of good writing. 

• Absence of lengthy verbiage of a political-social-economic nature 
• Total objectivity 
• Truthful descriptions of persons and objects 
• Extreme brevity 
• Audacity and originality: flee the stereotype Compassion

Cherry Orchard: 

Ranevskaya returns after five years to her estate to find that it has been heavily mortgaged to pay for her extravagances and that it is to be auctioned. Generous and scatterbrained, she seems incapable of recognizing her desperate situation. Gaev, Ranyevskaya’s brother, makes some impractical suggestions, but his chief hope lies in an uncertain legacy or a rich marriage for Anya, Mme. Ranevskaya’s young daughter. She, in turn, is attracted by the feckless student, Trofimov, and his dreams of social progress. The only apparently feasible proposal comes from Lopakhin, a merchant whose father was once a serf of the Gaev family. He suggests cutting down the famous cherry orchard and dividing the land into plots for summer cottages. The idea of destroying such beauty is rejected as a sacrilege, and with no specific plan in mind for saving the estate, the family drifts aimlessly, but hopefully, towards the day set for the auction. On that very evening, Mme. Ranyevskaya gives a party that she can ill afford. In the midst of the festivities, Lopakhin arrives and happily announces that he has acquired the estate and intends to carry out his suggested plan for cutting down the orchard. The estate and the orchard now gone, the family prepares to leave. Lopakshin fails to propose to Varya, Mme. Ranyevskaya’s adopted daughter, who becomes a housekeeper for others. Forgotten in the confusion is the very old and ailing Firs, the devoted former family serf, and as the sound of an axe rings from the cherry orchard, he lies down, a symbol of the past.

Three Sisters: 

Three Sisters is a play by the Russian author and playwright Anton Chekhov, perhaps partially inspired by the situation of the three Brontë sisters. It was written in 1900 and first performed in 1901 at the Moscow Art Theatre. Three Sisters is a naturalistic play about the decay of the privileged class in Russia and the search for meaning in the modern world. It describes the lives and aspirations of the Prozorov family, the three sisters (Olga, Masha, and Irina) and their brother Andrei. They are a family dissatisfied and frustrated with their present existence. The sisters are refined and cultured young women who grew up in urban Moscow; however, for the past eleven years, they have been living in a provincial town. 

Moscow is a major symbolic element: the sisters are always dreaming of it and constantly express their desire to return. They identify Moscow with their happiness, and thus to them it represents the perfect life. However, as the play develops, Moscow never materializes and they all see their dreams recede further and further, meaning, it never presents itself and they are forced to seek it out for themselves.

(a) Rajasthani Miniature

i. Raja Aniruddha Singh Hara

ii. Bharat Meets Rama at Chitrakuta

(b) Pahari Miniature

i. Nand, Yashoda and Krishna with Kinsmen going to Vrindavana

ii. Krishna with Gopis

iii. Radha and Krishna Looking into the Mirror

(a) Kabir and Raidas 

(b) Chand Bibi Plyaing Polo (Chaugan) 

Division of Marks:

(a) Name of the painter

(b) Medium & technique

(c) Subject-matter

Composition

1. Diversity in themes e.g. A scene of an activity related to religious, social, court, hunting, Nayak- Nayika Bheda, seasons (Barah – Masa) and raga – Ragini (Music) etc.

2. The powerful and rhythmic lines of this school are derived from old Indian tradition.

3. Execution of forms (human figures, architectural forms flora & fauna) are painted in

Idealistic manner.

4. Glowing colours in deep harmonious contrast.

5. Inspired from India epics, devotional poetry (Bharti- Kauya), romantic poetry (Riti- Vauya) and Indian music.

6. The tradition of simple and straight forward composition in which main figures stand out against a flat background in darkor bright colours.

Sodium lauryl sulphate.

Help the native pollinators: Pollinators, are the key to reproduction for most flowering plants which are foundational to the survival of many species on our planet. This is why the criteria of Biodiversity Hotspots gives so much weight to the number of plants in an area.

(i) Reduce or eliminate pesticides and fertilizer. Consider getting rid of your lawn, especially if you live in an arid region. Instead, plant native plants that are well adapted to your area. This will reduce the need to use pesticides and fertilizers. Don’t buy plants from nurseries that use systemic pesticides such as neonictinoids.

(ii) Restore habitat in your community. If you don’t have a yard, consider volunteering on an ecological restoration project in your area. Good places to look for volunteer opportunities are land trusts, wildlife foundations, Native Plant Societies, government agencies (e.g. Forest Service, Fish & Wildlife), and environmental organizations. You’ll spend time outdoors and learn about the native plants and animals.

(iii) People should be made aware of the importance of biodiversity and its conservation.

(iv) Over exploitation of natural resources must be avoided.

(v) Biodiversity plays an important role in maintaining and sustaining supply of goods and services.

(vi) Conservation of biodiversity ensures well being of all the living’creatures and their future generations.

An ascus-bearing structure found in the fungi known as ascomycetes. Ascocarps are composed of interwoven hyphae, and in many species they are visible, forming the most prominent part of the fungus. Ascocarps may be cup-shaped, spherical, or flask-shaped.

Type of Ascocarp:

(i) Cleistothecium : It is found in penicillium and Aspergillus. It is a rounded and closed body. The ascospores come out by the decay bf clistothecium wall.

(ii) Percithecium : It is found in Claviceps and Neurospora fungus. This types of ascocarp is a flask shaped body having an apical opening, called ostiole. The cavity of perthecium contain ascospores which come out through the ostiole aperture.

(iii) Apothecium : It is found in Marchella and Morels. It is a cup shaped fruiting body. There are many asci along with the paraphysis in hymenium - layer. Below the hymenium is hypothecium.

(a) Using unfair means is not a good idea. 

(b) It can make you feel ashamed. 

(c) Reaching your goal in a fair manner is good. 

(d) People came out on street fearing another earthquake.

Respected Principal Ma’am, worthy teachers and dear friends. Today I’ve got the golden opportunity to express my views on the topic ‘Snakes - a beautiful creation of God, an object of our love and not hatred.’ We all know that we share the earth with fellow human beings, plants and animals as well, so we have no right to kill any animal. A snake is a graceful and majestic looking animal. Some people think that some snakes are poisonous and so they should be killed. But this is a wrong notion. We should have respect for these creatures and believe in the principle of peaceful co-existence. It is our moral duty to respect and protect the rights of the other creatures. We should co-exist in harmony with other creatures and not tamper with ecology which has been carefully planned and laid out by nature. We must realize that snakes are a beautiful creation of God. They are an object of our love and not hatred. Thank you so much for your patient hearing.

(a) In rural India health care is a big challenge. or Health care is a big challenge in rural India. or Health care in rural India is a big challenge. 

(b) In rural India mortality rate is very high. or Mortality rate is very high in rural India. or Mortality rate in rural India is very high. 

(c) This is mainly due to inadequate health care facilities. 

(d) Doctors also do not like to practice in villages.