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Preventive measures for diseases spread by contaminated food and water are
(1) Proper disposal of water and excreta.
(2) Cleaning and disinfection of pools, water tanks and other water reservoirs.
(3) Storing raw and the cooked food separately.
(4) Cooking food in clean water and keeping it at safe temperature.
(5) Body should be clean, nails and hairs should be cut regularly
(6) Hygienic practice should be adopted at hotels and restaurants

The first general elections had to be postponed twice and finally held from October 1951 to February 1952: 

• These elections were referred to as 1952 elections because most parts of country voted in January 1952. 

• It took six months for campaigning, polling and counting to be completed. 

• Elections were competitive because there were on an average more than four candidates for each seat. 

• The level of participation was encouraging to vote out in the election. 

• The results were declared and accepted as fair even by losers to prove critics wrong.

These elections were successful : 

• The losing of the parties was also accepted as fair. 

• These elections became a landmark in the history of democracy.

 • It was no longer possible to argue that democratic elections could not be held in conditions of poverty or lack of education. Instead, it can be practised anywhere in the world.

Sardar Sarovar Project is an ambitious developmental project which was launched in the Narmada valley of central India in early eighties. The project consisted of 30 big dams, 135 medium sized and around 3,000 small dams to be constructed on the Narmada and its tributaries that flow across three states of Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Maharashtra.

Advocates of the multipurpose mega-scale dam in Gujarat say that it would benefit huge areas of Gujarat and the three adjoining states in terms of availability of drinking water and water for irrigation, generation of electricity and increase in agricultural production. Many more subsidiary benefits like effective flood and drought control in the region were linked to the success of this dam. In the process of construction of the dam, 245 villages from these states were expected to get submerged. It required relocation of around two and a half lakh people from these villages. Issues of relocation and proper rehabilitation of the project-affected people were first raised by local activist groups. It was around 1988-89 that the issues crystallised under the banner of Narmada Bachao Aandolan, a loose collective of local voluntary organisation.

Reasons of oppose by Narmada Bachao Aandolan : 

1. Narmada Bachao Aandolan (NBA) linked its opposition to Sardar Sarovar Project with larger issues concerning the nature of ongoing developmental projects, efficacy of model of development that the country followed and what constituted public interest in a democracy. 

2. It demanded that there should be a cost benefit analysis of the major developmental projects due to construction of dam submerged around 245 villages to require two half a lakh population to be relocated. 

3. The movement demanded proper rehabilitation of all those to be affected from the construction of these projects. 

4. This movement also questioned the nature of decision making process to be in forming of mega scale development projects. 

5. Movement also insisted that local communities must have a say in such decision making along with an effective control over natural resources. 

6. Hence, NBA achieved a comprehensive National Rehabilitation Policy formed by government in 2003. 

Democratic strategies used by it : 

• Mobilisation of support at inter-national level 

• Appeals to judiciary 

• Public rallies 

• Forms of Satyagraha

1. The fifth general elections to Lok Sabha were held in February 1971. The electoral contest appeared to be loaded against Congress (R). After all, the new Congress was just one faction of an already weak party. Everyone believed that the real organizational strength of the Congress Party was under the command of Congress (O). To make matters worse for Indira Gandhi, all the major non-Communist, non-Congress opposition parties formed an electoral alliance known as the Grand Alliance. Yet the new Congress had something that its big opponents lacked — it had an issue, an agenda and a positive slogan. The Grand Alliance did not have a coherent political programme. Indira Gandhi said that the opposition alliance had only one common programme Indira Hatao (Remove Indira). In contrast to this, she put forward a positive programme captured in the famous slogan: Garibi Hatao (remove poverty). 

2. Indira Gandhi focussed on the growth of the public sector, imposition of ceiling on rural land holdings and urban poverty, removal of disparities in income and opportunity, and abolition of princely privileges. Thus, the slogan Garibi Hatao and the programmes that followed it were part of Indira Gandhi’s political strategy of building an Independent nationwide political support base. As a result, she won 352 seats with about 44 per cent of the popular votes on its own in the Lok Sabha elections of 1971. 

3. Soon after the 1971 Lok Sabha election, a major political and military crises broke out in East Pakistan (now Bangladesh). The 1971 elections were followed by the crisis in East Pakistan and the Indo-Pak war leading to the establishment of Bangladesh. These events added to the popularity of Indira Gandhi. Even the opposition leaders admired her statesmanship

Women in Nellore came together in spontaneous local initiatives to protest against arrack and forced the closure of wine shops. And this movement spread slowly all over the state. 

Issues relating to movements : 

• The Anti-Arrack movement aimed at prohibition on the sale of arrack. 

• Its demand touched upon larger section of social, economic and political issues which had established a close nexus between crime and politics. 

• Women openly discussed the issue of domestic violence like dowry, sexual violence etc. 

• Anti-Arrack movement provided a platform to discuss private issues of domestic violence. 

Issues relating to movements : 

• The Anti-arrack movement aimed at prohibition on the sale of arrack. 

• Its demand touched upon larger section of social, economic and political issues which had established a close nexus between crime and politics. 

• Women openly discussed the issues of domestic violence like dowry, sexual violence etc. 

• Anti-arrack movement provided a platform to discuss private issues of domestic violence.

(i) Shankaradeva was leading proponent of Vaishnavism in Assam in the late 15th century. His teachings were based on the Bhagavad Gita and Bhagavata purana and referred to as Bhagavati dharma. 

(ii) He focused on absolute surrender to Vishnu, the supreme diety. He emphasised the need for nam kirtan is Satsanga. 

(iii) Shankaradeva encouraged the establishment of ‘satva’ or monastries for the transmission of spritual knowledge and ‘naamghar’ or prayer halls. 

(iv) Many of these institutions and practices continue to flourish in the region. His major compositions include the kirtana ghosha.

The importance of railways as the principal mode of transportation for freight and passengers in India is :
(i) Railways make it possible to conduct multifarious activities like business, sight seeing, pilgrimage along with transportation of goods.
(ii) It is suitable for long distance travel.
(iii) Plays an important role in national integration.
(iv) Railways bind the economic life of the country.
(v) It accelerates the development of the industry and agriculture.
(vi) Today the railways have become more important than all other means of transport put together

The distribution pattern of the Railway network:

(i) The northern plains with their vast level land, high population density and rich agricultural resources provided the most favourable condition for their growth.

(ii) In the hilly terrains of the peninsular region, railway tracks are laid through low hills, gaps or tunnels.

(iii) The Himalayan mountainous regions too are unfavourable for the construction of railway lines due to high relief, sparse population and fack of economic opportunities.

(iv) It was difficult to lay railway lines on the sandy plain of western Rajasthan, swamps of Gujarat, forested tracks of Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha and Jharkhand.

(v) The contiguous stretch of Sahyadri could be crossed only through gaps or passes (Chats).

(vi) The development of the Konkan railway along the west coast has facilitated the movement of passengers and goods.

Urban Local government implies the governance of an urban area by the people through their elected representatives. 74th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992 provided constitutional status to local urban bodies.

Thus, the 73rd and 74th amendments provide a framework for the States in respect of local government. Thus, each State has its own Election Commission which conducts elections to all local bodies after regular intervals of five years.

Composition:

2. The offices of chairperson are reserved for SC/ST and women.

Function:

1. The corporation, council or municipal board or council consisting of the elected representatives of the people, act like a legislature.

2. the urban local body frames broad policies relating to taxation, resources raising, pricing of services and other aspects of municipal administration.

1. The Municipal bodies are constituted of persons chosen by direct election from the territorial constituencies (known as wards) in the municipal area.

The distribution pattern of the Railway network in the country has been largely influenced by physiographic, economic and administrative factors:

• The northern plains with their vast level land, high population density and rich agricultural resources provided the most favourable condition for their growth.
• A large number of rivers requiring construction of bridges across their wide beds posed some obstacles.
• In the hilly terrains of the peninsular region, railway tracts are laid through low hills, gaps or tunnels.
• It is difficult to lay railway tracks in the sandy plains of Western Rajasthan, swamps of Gujarat and forested areas of states in central India, e.g. Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha and Jharkhand.

Given below are some economic factors that affect the distribution of railways:

(i) State funding plays a vital role in the development of railways across the nations.

(ii) The state with flexible laws supports the growth of railways.

(iii) The places that are highly industrialised attract the development of railways.

(iv) Since the growth of both is complimentary to each other, e.g. recendy railway network is enhancing along the industrial corridors.

(i) Railways carry out businesses and various multifarious activities such as pilgrimage tourism, travel, commuting etc. 

(ii) They help in the transportation of raw-materials from the source to the industries, and the manufactured goods to the market. Thus, they efficiently help in the linking of the industries with the market and develop them. 

(iii) They also help in the transportation of crops, dairy and its products, vegetables, fruits, flowers and various allied agricultural products to the markets and thus help the farmers to earn a good profit. 

(iv) They give employment to a large number of people. 

(v) Railways have been a great integrating force for the nation, for more than 150 years now.

The reasons:

(i) Existence of political parties in a representative democracy ensures that the country runs as per its policies and ideologies and has a responsive and accountable government that is answerable to the people.

(ii) Without political parties, candidates elected will be independent, will be accountable to their constituency for what they do in the locality.

(iii) Political parties are required so that a country is governed as per set ideologies and will be responsible for how the country will be run.

The author aims to explode man's principal delusion that he "is all-important, that all else in creation exists only for his sport, amusement, comfort, or nourishment." To this end, the human characters are presented as trying to manipulate the natural world for their own ends and failing miserably in the process. By using a tiger as his central character, and by allowing die reader to see through a tiger's eyes, Narayan portrays man as selfish and insensitive to the world, as well as totally unaware of his role in the great scheme of things. That Raja's thoughts and activities are superior to anything he observes of humankind affirms just how much the individual is immersed in egocentric ignorance. 

Tiger second time recaptured by an ascetic /monk who comes to rescue the town Controls the tiger through his mystical power, sparkling eyes, and spiritual discussions with the tiger, philosophical discourses, amazed at the tiger’s philosophies.

Old tiger remembers his mother and siblings, ferocious tiger moved, hunted independently, litter with tigress, old toothless now.

Near Indian jungle family hunted by poachers, decided to revenge, attack livestock, caught by ringmaster, treated roughly by captain, malnourished and underfed. Made to fear the chair by constant canning and whipping, tamed by the hermit philosophical discourses. 

Margayya shows his horoscope to an astrologer and is assured that good times will come if he offers puja to Laxmi, The Goddess of wealth. The puja is done for 40 days, with ash from a Red Lotus and ghee made of milk from a grey cow. He goes through the puja with all rigor and devotion.

Madan Lal a Man from North reads the manuscript, got impressed, agrees to publish it on a 50:50 partnership basis. The book at once become popular, sells like a hot cake Margayya hits a fortune. 

He is a man of thirty, his face still youthful, tall man with sunken cheeks. Margayya encounters him when he made a trip to the pond beyond Sarayu. Dr. Pal is busy in search of news and he devotes to writing books on sociology. He is a journalist and has done Ph.D in sociology. Living in poverty he is immensely interested in his job as a writer. He unhesitatingly shows Margayya the manuscript of his book entitled ‘Bed life or the Science of Marital Happiness’. The book is based on sexology. According to Dr. Pal, this is a branch of sociology. His main purpose is to create happiness in the world and to prevent tragedies relating to ill-matched couples. He is Balu's constant companion. Balu and Dr. Pal gather in a house of a man who called himself a theatrical agent. They sat there continuously playing cards till midnight. They chewed tobacco and betel leaves. Within a few days, Margayya understands that Dr. Pal is the cause for the ruin of his son. When he was badly beaten up by Margayya, he recorded an immediate complaint with the police. He turns an enemy and he pushed margayya back to the positin from where he had started his business .

Dr. Pal arranges for a paid astrologer to match horoscope of Balu & Vrinda. A constant companion of Balu played cards, indulged with girls. They chew tobacco and betel leaves and also drank together .

Provokes Balu against his father.

On being insulted by Maragyya, spread rumors against him and brought downfall to his business. 

Sold the manuscripts of Bed Life by Dr. Pal for whatever cash Margayya has – is assured that the book named Domestic Harmony will sell in thousands if the right publisher is found – Madan Lal agrees to publish it on a 50-50 partnership – book is popular and Margayya hits a fortune.

Combines traditional values and wave of westernization – bears no remorse in illegal sale of forms – obsession with money leads to neglect of only son – stoops low in immoral literature – suffers no guilt or qualms – devoid of love and compassion – ignores domestic life 

Prakriti , an untouchable, encounter with the Bhikshu who asks for water, Mother chastses her for this act and warns her of dire consequences. Moved by her daughter’s insistence casts the spell on the Bhikshu-Finally willingly gives up her life in revoking the spell. Her ultimate act of selfless love for her daughter

 Milton is contrasting the seeming speed of life as it flies by and is finished to the seeming long length of individual days. He is also contrasting the ultimate end of human life with the ultimate annihilation of Time. The first line quoted here carries a Biblical allusion to the Christian notion that Time will eventually end, "till thou run out thy race," when Earth, space and time cease to exist at the end of the world, a time when a New Heaven and a New Earth without the limits of Time is expected.

He defies Time's control over individual human lives . The poetic narrator is mocking Time for two reasons. First, though life rushes past, each day has a "lazy leaden-" pace that goes only as fast as a lead weight, "Plummet." Second, Time will cease to be, "thy greedy self consum'd," but humans' lives will end in the long eternal "bliss" of unity with God:

Time is both too fast and yet prolonged: the whole is too fast but the individual parts are preciously slow. Milton further "pitted the flight of Time against the 'lazy leaden-stepping hours' and 'the heavy Plummets pace'" as a mark of defiance against the quickly spent short course of life and as a celebration of the eternal blissful life that is to follow.

Einstein blamed himself for the nuclear incident happened and asked for the punishment to be given to him.

Best way to learn about perfection is to work in it/understanding of what is happening in the play and why/understanding the desires and intentions of characters/ knowledge of visual components and elements of theatre/values-good actor must have good stamina, endurance, patience, strength, courage, memory, imagination and confidence/values of director-responsibility, objective to fulfill the intentions of the playwright, planning the total production, determining the dominant theme and ideas, style of the production, final decision maker.

The identical twins are monozygotic in nature and are produced from the two parts of the same zygote. Thus, only one egg has to be released from the female ovary in order to give rise to the identical twins.

Darwin concluded that after originating from a common ancestral seed-eating stock, the finches must have radiated to different geographical areas and had undergone adaptive changes, especially in the type of beaks.

Biofortified maize and wheat are nutritionally improved because of following two main reasons

• Hybrid maize is much rich in the amount of amino acids, lysine and tryptophan.
• And hybrid wheat is much rich in the quantity of protein in it.

(i) Bryophytes are commonly called amphibians of plant kingdom, they require water to complete their sexual reproduction.

(ii) The plant body is thallus attached to substratum.

(iii) They have root like structures called rhizoids.

(iv) Dominant phase is gametophyte (n), which produces gametes.

(v) Male and female sex organs are called antheridia and archegonia respectively.

(vi) Antheridia produce biflagellate antherozoids and archegonia produces, a single non motile egg.

(vii) Zygote is formed by the fusion of haploid male and female gametes.

(viii) Zygote (2n) develops into diploid sporophyte.

(ix) Bryophyte exhibits alternation of haploid gametophyte and diploid sporophytic generation.

Humerus, Radius, Ulna, Carpals, Metacarpals and phalanges.

The exine of pollen grains have an outermost hard layer composed of a chemical, sporopollenin. It is highly resistant to high temperature, strong acids and alkali.

Soft/ruptured seed coat, radicle which emerges first (add comma) , leafy plumule, between the two cotyledons.

I will select castor seed as despite being a dicotyledonous seed it contains endosperm which is not utilised during the development of embryo and thus persists in the seed. 

To prevent u-v radiation from reaching the earth.

Moustaches, Beard, Hoarse voice, Thick growth of hair on the body.

Cystic Fibrosis (Cystic Fibrosis Trans membrane Conductance Regulator CFTR gene)

1.  Inheritance: autosomal recessive disease

2.  Genomic location: Chromosome 7 (7q31.2)

3.  Mutation: The most common mutation is a deletion of 3 bps resulting in the loss of codon no. 508, which codes for phenylalanine

Huntington disease (Hunting tin gene HTT)

1.  Inheritance: autosomal dominant 

2.  Location: Chrosome 4 (4p16.3) 

3.  Mutation: increased number of CAG repeats more than 35 times

The construction of recombinant DNA is done by linking a gene encoding antibiotic resistance with a native plasmid. These plasmid DNA act as vectors to transfer the piece of DNA attached to it. 

Only one type of restriction endonuclease is required for creating recombinant vector because when cut by the same enzyme, the resultant DNA fragments have the same sticky ends, which can be joined together using DNA ligases.

Pollen grains are generally shed at the 2-celled stage in angiosperms. Each mature pollen grain in angiosperms has two cells - 

(i) the generative cell 

(ii) the vegetative cells 

Climate change mitigation consists of actions to limit the magnitude or rate of long-term climate change.

1. It generally involves reductions in human (anthropogenic) emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs).

2. Mitigation may also be achieved by increasing the capacity of carbon sinks, e.g., through reforestation.

Directed sequencing of Bacterial Artificial Chromosome (BAC) contigs

Bacterial Artificial Chromosome (BAC) vectors are used to make genomic libraries in which the insert size is 80-100 kb, library is then screened by finding common restriction fragments.

BAC clones are then mapped to find overlapping arrays of contiguous clones called contigs. The mapped contigs are sequenced by breaking large DNA fragments into small pieces.

Random shotgun sequencing In random shotgun sequencing, big genomic DNA molecules are cloned in small (2.0 kb) and medium (10 kb) plasmid vectors and a library is constructed.

Picking many clones, sequencing them and feeding all these data into a computer program, these sequences are joined by finding overlapping parts. The result is, we get long pieces of DNA sequences. 

The phenomenon is called parthenogenesis and the cell responsible for it is female gamete, ovum.

Mitigation means reducing the severity, seriousness or painfulness of something' Climate change mitigation consists of actions to limit the magnitude or rate of long-term climate change. 

Goals of climate change mitigation ate: 

1.  To avoid significant human interference with the climate system.

2. To stabilize greenhouse gas levels in a timeframe sufficient to allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change. 

3. To ensure that food production is not threatened and to enable economic development to proceed in a sustainable manner.

Methodologies of Human Genome Project are :

Expressed Sequence Tags (EST's) : This method focuses on identifying all the genes that are expressed as RNA. 

Sequence Annotation : It is an approach of simply sequencing the whole set of genome that contains all the coding and non-coding sequences, and later assigning different regions in the sequence with functions.

 YAC is Yeast Artificial Chromosomes. 

YAC is a specialised vector into which the randomly broken fragments of isolated DNA is inserted, so that fragments are cloned into suitable hosts.

Bamboo flowers once in its life time. It produces large number of fruits and dies.