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When sodium is dropped in water, a vigorous chemical reaction takes place in which sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and hydrogen gas is produced with the evolution of heat.

2Na + 2H₂O → 2NaOH + H₂↑

(1) Interhalogens are more reactive than halogens (except F) because A–X bonds in dihalogen interhalogens are weaker than the X–X bonds in dihalogen molecules.

(2) Because dinitrogen is formed by sharing three electron pairs between two nitrogen atoms resulting into the triple bond. As a result the bond dissociation energy is quite high causing N₂ to be less reactive.

(3) The reducing character depends upon the stability of the hydride. Since BiH₃ is the least stable (least electronegative) than other elements in the group, therefore they can easily donate electron pair. Therefore, reducing character increases from NH₃ to BiH₃. 

Sparrow belongs to class Aves.

Adaptations for an aerial mode of life are:

(a) Forelimbs modified into legs

(b) Uricotelic excretion and pneumatic bone

The Correct option is (c) 4

Planned investment (Ex-ante) is the investment which is desired to be made by the firms and planners in the economy during a particular period in the beginning of the period. As against it, the actual investment of a period (e.g., a year) measured after the fact is called ex-post or actual investment. It needs to be noted that Keynes include in investment the inventories of unsold goods which he called unplanned investment. Thus actual investment equals planned + unplanned investment. Briefly put, planned investment is intended or desired investment whereas actual investment is equal to planned + unplanned investment. It should be kept in mind that sometimes investment is made which was not included in planned investment. This type of investment is called unplanned investment. Unplanned investment takes place when unsold finished goods accumulate due to poor sales. Thus actual investment of an economy is the total of planned investment and unplanned investment.

When commercial banks have exhausted all resources to supplement their funds at times of liquidity crisis, they approach Central Bank as a last resort. As lender of last resort Central Bank gives guarantee of solvency and provides financial accommodation to commercial banks (i) by red is counting their eligible securities and bills of exchange and (ii) by providing loans against their securities. This saves banks from possible failure and banking system from a possible breakdown. On the other hand Central Bank, by providing temporary financial accommodation, saves the financial structure of the country from collapse.

Speculative demand for money is inversely related to rate of interest i.e. higher the rate of interest, smaller will be speculative demand for money and vice versa. Therefore curve of speculative demand for money is downward sloping to right. There is two situations:

(i) If market rate of interest is very high and expected to fall in future (i.e. rise in price of bond) thereby anticipating capital gain from bond-holding, people will convert their money into bonds. Thus speculative demand for money is low. 

(ii) On the contrary if rate of interest is low and people expect it to rise in future (i.e. fall in price of bond) anticipating capital loss from bond-holding, people convert their bonds into money in order to avoid future capital loss. They hold up money balance thinking that income from non-monetary assets like bond will be low and so the cost of money holding will also be low.

Let the price of bond be Rs. P

We know that,

A = P(1+ r/100)ⁿ

It is given that
A = Rs.500
r = 5%
n = 2 years
Substituting the values in the formula

500 = P(1 + 5/100)²

or, 500 = P(1 + 5/20)²

or, 500 = P(1 + 21/20)²

or, 500 = P(441/400)

or, P = 200000/441 = 452.51

So, P = Rs 453.51
Therefore, Price of the bond is Rs. 453.51.

Commercial banks play the important role of 'money creator' in the economy. They have the capacity to generate credit through demand deposits. These demand deposits make credit more than the initial deposits. 

The process of money creation can be explained by taking an example of a bank XYZ. A depositor deposits Rs. 10,000 in his savings account, which will become the demand deposit of the bank. Based on the assumption that not all customers will turn up at the same day to withdraw their deposits, bank maintains a minimum cash reserve of 10 % of the demand deposits, i.e. Rs.1000. It lends the remaining amount of Rs.9000 in the form of credit to other customers. This further creates deposits for the bank XYZ. With the cash reserve of Rs.1000, the credit creation is worth Rs. 10,000. So, the credit multiplier is given by: 

Credit multiplier = 1/CRR = 1/10% = 10 

The money supply in the economy will increase by the amount (times) of credit multiplier.

Money multiplier is the ratio of the stock of money to the stock of high powered money in an economy
i.e. M_M = M/H
Where, M_M is the money multiplier
M represents stock of money
H represents high powered money
The value of money multiplier is always greater than 1.
The value of money multiplier can be derived as follows:
We know that M = C + DD = (1 + cdr)DD
Where, M = Money supply
C = Currency held by people

cdr = Currency deposit ratio
DD = Demand deposits
Let treasury deposits of government be D
We know, High powered money = Currency + Reserve money
Or, H = C + R
= cdr D + rdr D
= D (cdr + rdr) (Taking D common)
Money multiplier = M/H
So, the ratio of money supply to high powered money M/H becomes

M/H = (1+ cdr)/(cdr + rdr)

But rdr < 1

so, M/H = (1+ cdr)/(cdr + rdr) >1

The currency deposit ratio (cdr) and the reserve deposit ratio (rdr) play an important role in determining the money multiplier.

The currency deposit ratio (cdr) is the ratio of the money (currency) held by public to that they hold in bank deposits.

That is, cdr = C/DD

The reserve deposit ratio (rdr) is the proportion of the total deposits kept by the commercial banks as reserve.

Commercial banks perform various functions that are as follows: 

a. Accepting deposits: The basic function of commercial banks is to accept deposits of the customers. These deposits are of the following types: 

(i) Saving Accounts: Saving accounts cater to the needs of those individuals who wish to save a part of their income and earn interest on the amount saved. Account holders of saving accounts can deposit cheques, drafts, etc. However, there is a limit on withdrawal.

(ii) Fixed deposit accounts: As the name suggests, fixed deposit accounts imply deposits are kept for fixed periods of time; for example, Rs.500 per month for 5 years. The period has to be decided in advance, while opening the account. Holders of these accounts do not enjoy the cheque facility. Higher the time period, higher will be the interest rate, which is decided by RBI. 

(iii) Current deposits accounts: Current deposit accounts are also called 'demand deposits' as the depositor can withdraw money at any time through cheques. Businessmen use this account to make many transactions in a single day; however, they do not earn interest on the deposits. Banks provide account statements to the current account holders at regular intervals. 

b. Granting loans and advances: The second most important function of the commercial banks is to give loans and advances. The rate of interest charged by the banks on loans is higher than the rate of interest paid by the banks on demand deposits and saving deposits. Loans granted by commercial banks are generally for long term and are given against securities. Advances are given by a bank only for a short span of time. 

c. Agency functions: The commercial banks perform various agency functions with the prime purpose of acceptance of deposits and granting of loans. Their functions include: 

(i) Transfer of funds- The banks provide easy flow of funds from place to place via mail transfers, demand drafts, etc. 

(ii) Collection of funds- The banks also collect funds on behalf of its customers through bills, cheques, etc.

(iii) Banks collect insurance premiums, dividends, interest on debentures, etc. 

(iv) Banks assist in the process of tax payment by the account holders. 

(v) Banks also play the role of trustees or executors. 

d. Discounting bills of exchange: Commercial Banks provide financial assistance to the business community by discounting bills of exchange. The banks purchase these bills, produced by customers, by deducting interest from the face value of the bill, thus providing easy finances to the business community when required.

e. Credit creation: Commercial banks create credit in the economy through demand deposits. Credit creation paves the path for the growth of the economy.
f. Other functions:
(i) Providing locker facility
(ii) Purchase and sale of foreign exchange
(iii) Issue of gift cheques
(iv) Underwriting of shares and debentures
(v) Providing information and statistical data useful to customers

True. An increase in statutory liquidity ratio reduces the excess reserves of commercial banks and limits their credit creating power.

Money/credit creation is an important function of the commercial banks. By creating credit, commercial banks contribute to money supply in the economy. They create credit in the form of demand deposits. Demand deposits of the commercial banks are many times more than their cash reserves. If cash reserves are (say) Rs. 1,000 and if the demand deposits are (say) RS. 10,000, then the commercial banks are creating credit ten times of their cash reserves. Accordingly, on the basis of cash reserves of Rs. 1,000, the commercial banks are contributing Rs. 10,000 to the supply of money. The process of credit creation is like this: Initially, bank receives deposits of Rs. 1,000. The required reserves to tackle the liability of Rs. 1,000 is equal to Rs. 100 (on the assumption that cash reserve ratio is 10% of total deposits). Implying that the banks have excess reserves = Rs. 1,000 – Rs. 100 = Rs. 900 which they can use for the purpose of lending. When these excess reserves are loaned out, total deposits of the bank amount to Rs. 1000 + Rs. 900 = Rs. 1,900. The banks need to hold cash reserves as 10% of Rs. 1,900 or Rs. 190, while their actual reserves are Rs. 1,000. Implying excess reserves of Rs. 1,000 – Rs. 190 = Rs. 810 can be loaned. This process continues till total demand deposits are Rs. 10,000 and cash reserves are Rs. 1,000. Thus, if required reserve ratio is equal to 10%, total cash reserves of Rs.1,000 allow the bank to create demand deposits upto Rs. 10,000. So that,

Demand Deposits = 1/RP x Cash Reserves = 1/10% x 10000 = 10000

Here, RR refers to reserve requirement of the commercial banks as a percentage of their demand deposits. Here, it is important to note that loans are never offered in cash. These are always reflected as demand deposits in favour of the borrowers. Accordingly, when loans are offered, demand deposits of the banks lend to build up. In the above example, cash reserves of Rs. 1,000 allow demand deposits of  Rs.10,000 which serve as a source of money supply.

Marketing plan provides the organisation with guidelines with respect to marketing objectives, strategies and activities to be followed. 

The various steps are:

a.  Business situation analysis:

If it is an existing enterprise then it’s past performance and achievements are looked into it. If it is a new enterprise then aspects like personal profile of the entrepreneur, product development, experience of the entrepreneur, the need the product satisfies and marketing segmentation is looked into.

b.  Identify the target market:

For any new venture, it is very essential to define clearly the specific group of potential customers whose needs the enterprise aims to fulfil.

c.  Conduct SWOT analysis: 

The plan needs to consider the Strengths, Weakness, Opportunities and Threats of the organisation to ensure success.

d.  Establish goals: 

The enterprise needs to set realistic, attainable goals. They need to quantify the goals so that they can be controlled and limit it to certain number.

e.  Define marketing strategy: The strategy should comprise various decisions pertaining to the following P’s: Product, Price, Promotion and Place 

f.  Implementation and monitoring of the plan: 

It is important for the entrepreneur to understand that this plan should be flexible and he should be prepared to make necessary adjustments as and when require

It is a distribution network through which the producer puts his products in the market and passes it to the actual users. This channel consists of: producers, consumers or users and the various middlemen like wholesalers, selling agents and retailers (dealers) who intervene between the producers and consumers. Therefore, the channel serves to bridge the gap between the point of production and the point f consumption thereby creating time, place and possession utilities. 

Considerations related to market are given below: 

a.  Number of buyers:

If the number of buyers is large then it is better to take the services of middlemen for the distribution of the goods. On the contrary, the distribution should be done by the manufacturer directly if the number of buyers is less.

b.  Types of buyers:

Buyers can be of two types: General Buyers and Industrial Buyers. If the more buyers of the product belong to general category then there can be more middlemen. But in case of industrial buyers there can be fewer middlemen.

c. Buying habits: 

A manufacturer should take the services of middlemen if his/her financial position does not permit him/her to sell goods on credit to those consumers who are in the habit of purchasing goods on credit.

d. Buying quantity:

It is useful for the manufacturer to rely on the services of middlemen if the goods are bought in smaller quantity.

e.  Size of market:

If the market area of the product is scattered fairly, then the producer must take the help of middlemen.

a.  Demand: 

The demand assessment will be based on the size of market being targeted, i.e., local markets, market at state level or national/international market. It will also involve a study of the target groups of consumers, their preferences, tastes and other related variables.

b.  Supply and nature of competition:

While assessing market, supply position is also studied by entrepreneurs. A complete picture of quantities of the product made available in the market by all the existing players should be made available. It should take into account future supplies from possible entrants in the field.

c.  Cost and price of product:

It is important to determine the cost of the product and its comparison with available products in the market. Cost variable of competitors in terms of transportation delays, wastage, storage etc., have to be studied to spot cost advantage. This will influence the delivery mechanism of the identified product or service. 

d.  Project innovation and change:

Market assessment will require a study of prevailing innovations and changes being carried out by existing entrepreneurs. Technological advancements in the field have to be analysed because they may change the quality and influence the cost and price ultimately.

Although accelerated growth is a necessary condition to ensure removal of poverty, it is not sufficient condition for removal of poverty. It is very important that accelerated growth should be accompanied by levelling up of income i.e., fruits of growth must flow towards the poorer sections of the society i.e., additional income generated should not be cornered by already rich persons.

Organic farming refers to a system of farming that sustains and enhances the ecological balance. In other words, this system of farming relies upon the use of organic inputs for cultivation. The traditional farming involves the use of chemical fertilisers, toxic pesticides, etc. that harms the eco-system drastically. So, this type of farming is practiced to produce toxic-free food for the consumers while simultaneously maintaining the fertility of the soil and contributing to ecological balance. This type of farming enables ecofriendly sustainable economic development.

Distinction between Physical Capital and Human Capital.

Some of the Salient features of the strategy of Industrial development adopted by India during 1950-90 were as follows :

(a) Economic growth to be achieved during five year plans.

(b) Public enterprises to play an important role.

(c) Import substitution to be the centre of the process of industrialisation.

(d) Domestic industries to be developed along with small scale industries.

(e) Increase in export of industrial products.

(f) Development of information technology and electronics industries.

(g) Development of food processing industry.

(h) Emergence of consultancy services.

Industrial Development is considered to be a foundation stone to the economic development. 

The effects of policies adopted during 1950-90 on Industrial Development of India :

 Achievements : 

(a) Economic growth got a push due to increased agricultural production. Industrial production also increased. 

(b) Growth of large scale industry projected an infra-structural shift in the Indian economy. 

(c) Growth of small scale industries made a substantial contribution in achieving the objectives of growth with equity and social justice. 

Failures : 

(a) The public sector industries by incurring huge losses caused a drain of several scarce national resources. 

(b) Domestic industries failed to achieve international standards of product quality. 

(c) Foreign exchange reserves depleted to a very low level. Briefly, the growth process started showing signs of stagnation across all sectors of the economy, industry in particular.

Similar development strategies have India and Pakistan for their respective development paths : 

(a) India and Pakistan both started their development process on economic planning after getting independence in 1947. 

(b) Both of them have adopted the mixed economic model of growth, involving the co-existence of both the public and the private sector. 

(c) Both the countries followed the import substitution strategy by adopting tariff protection and direct import controls. 

(d) In both the economies public sector was assigned a leading role for initiating the process of growth and development. 

(e) Both introduced economic reforms around the same time to strengthen their economies. Pakistan initiated reforms in 1988 and India followed in 1991.

(f) The green revolution was aimed to increase food grain production in both the economies. They both have announced First Five Year Plans for growth and development. India undertook its first Five Year Plan from 1951-56. Pakistan announced its first plan, called the Medium Term Plan in 1956.

The programmes adopted by government to help the elderly people and poor and destitute women are - 

1) National Old Age Pension Scheme: The National Old Age Pension Scheme is a part of National Social Assistance Programme, which came into effect from 15th August 1995 and the objective of this scheme is to provide social assistance to old age persons. 

2) National Family Benefit Scheme: The National Family Benefit Scheme is a part of National Social Assistance Programme, which came into effect from 15th August 1995 and objective of this scheme is to provide social assistance and benefits to the eligible families. 

3) National Maternity Benefit Scheme: The National Maternity Benefit Scheme was launched by Ministry of Women and Child Development of Government of India in 1995. The pregnant woman who is of or above 19 years of age and has BPL card is eligible for the benefits of this scheme. Under this scheme Rs.500 per pregnancy is paid to women for pre-natal and post-natal maternity care up to first two live births. 

4) Public Distribution System: Public Distribution system is a programme of government under which government sponsored chain of shops are entrusted with the responsibility of distribution of basic food and non food items to the needy section at very cheap prices. These shops are commonly known as ration shops.

The government uses Monthly Per Capita Expenditure (MPCE) as an alternative for income of households to identify the poor. The estimation of the poverty line is calculated by multiplying the prices of minimum calorie intake in rupees, i.e. 2,400 calories per person in rural areas and 2,100 calories per person in urban areas. The calorie-based norm is not sufficient to identify the poor because of the following reasons: 

• It does not differentiate between the very poor and the other kind of poor because it groups all the poor together. 
• It considers the expenditure on food and other selective items as an alternative for income without any concrete base for measurement of poverty. 
• It is difficult to identify who among the poor really require the most assistance. 
• It does not take into account important factors associated with poverty such as access to education, health and water. 
• It does not take into account social factors responsible for people living in poverty. 

Thus, the calorie-based norm is not sufficient to identify the poor in the country.

Poverty line is estimated by the per capita expenditure on minimum calorie intake. It was estimated to be 2400 calories for a person of rural area and 2100 for a person of urban area. This calorie-based norm is not adequate to identify the poor due to following reasons –  

1. It puts all the poor in a single group and does not differentiate between very poor and other poor so it becomes tough to identify that who needs the aid most.

2. It considers only the expenditure on few selected food items.

3. It does not consider other important factors associated with poverty like healthcare, quality of drinking water, sanitation, education etc.

4. It also ignores the other social security factors like lack of access to resources, lack of civil and political freedom, discrimination, etc.

A Constitution is a living document because: 

(a) It can be changed according to the need of the time. It has a special amending procedure of its own. 

(b) It contains provisions to resolve socio-economic problems. 

(c) A constitution is capable to adopt the new conditions as they arise. 

(d) Judicial interpretations, executive orders, customs also support to the growth of a constitution.

The proportion of literate population of a country is an indicator of its socioeconomic development because it shows the standard of living, social status of females, availability of educational facilities and policies of government.

False. In spot market sale and purchase of foreign currency is settled immediately. 

NOTE: As per CBSE guidelines, no marks will be given if reason to the answer is not explained.

The transactions carried on by monetary authorities of a country, which causes changes in official reserves are termed as official reserve transactions. Autonomous receipts and autonomous payments give rise to either deficit or surplus on balance of payments. 

The central bank may finance a deficit by : 

1. Reducing reserves of foreign currency, 

2. by borrowing from the IMF or monetary authorities. This will be shown as decrease in reserves. The central bank may use surplus to purchase foreign securities, foreign currency, gold etc. which may result in increase in reserves of the nation.

Depreciation and devaluation both imply a fall in external value of a currency; however the term depreciation is used under the floating exchange rate system i.e., when the exchange rate system is determined by the combined market forces of demand and supply. A currency loses or gains value because of fluctuations in demand and supply. The term devaluation is used in a system of fixed exchange rates. In this system, the exchange value of a currency is decided by the government. Devaluation of currency is the deliberate action of the government. Depreciation and devaluation of a currency normally encourages exports from a country, as exports become cheaper for the foreign nationals and foreign currency can now buy more of domestic goods, i.e., the international competitiveness of the goods and services of such a nation gets better.

Depreciation of a currency, namely : 

(i) encourages exports from a country and 

(ii) discourages imports from the rest of the world

If inflation is higher in country A than in country B, and the exchange rate between the two countries is fixed, the trade balance of country A will be deficit while that of country B will be surplus. In case of inflation in country A and prices of country B remaining constant, imports of country A will rise or exports of country A will decline. As a result, trade balance of country A will be unfavourable and trade balance of country B will be favourable.

Current Account Deficit (CAD) in balance of payments occurs when the sum of receipts of foreign exchange on account of trade in visible and invisible is less than the sum of payments of foreign exchange on account of trade in visibles and invisibles.

A CAD implies that a country has contracted to spend more foreign exchange than it has been able to earn during the year.

A CAD can be financed by different sources :

(i) A country may use a part of its gold stocks and make payments to foreigners by means of gold. 

(ii) A country may draw upon the reserves of foreign currencies and foreign securities. 

(iii) A country may borrow foreign exchange from different officials and private sources. 

(iv) It may mobilise foreign exchange by attracting deposits from foreigners and investment of capital by foreigners.

a.  There is a good market for the product he is going to produce 

b.  The rate of return on the investment is attractive to be accepted by him 

Importance of environment: 

For example, Sony failing to understand the changing trends in mobile phones and therefore losing its market share. 

The benefits of understanding the relevant environment of business are: 

(i) Identification of opportunities to get first mover advantage: By keeping in touch with the changes in the external environment, an enterprise can identify opportunities and find strategies to capitalise on the opportunities at the earliest. For example, Volvo, the Swedish brand has 74% share in the luxury bus segment as it had entered India earlier. 

(ii) Formulation of strategies and policies: It helps in identifying threats and opportunities in the market. These can serve as the basis of formulation of strategies to counter threats and capitalise on opportunities in the market. For example, to understand new trends in the market. 

(iii) Tapping useful resources: If the company has a thorough knowledge of the external environment, it can tap raw materials, technology and even financial resources from the market at economical prices at the right time. For example, resources or raw materials which can be obtained from different countries. 

(iv) Better performance: Proper understanding of the various elements of the external environment is necessary to take timely action to deal with threats and avail opportunities for the purpose of improvement in the performance of the firm. For example, new entry of a competitor with advanced technological product. 

(v) Sensitisation of entrepreneurs to cope up with rapid changes: A keen watch on the trends in environment would help to sensitise the entrepreneur to the changing technology, competition, government policies and changing needs of the customers. For example, changing trends in clothing.

The legal services institution is vested with the authority to invite applications from legal practitioners with requisite professional experience to indicate the types of cases as they may be entrusted with. The panel shall be prepared by the Executive Chairman of the legal service institution in consultation with the Attorney-General (for Supreme Court), Advocate-General (for High Courts), Government pleader (for districts/Taluks) and the Bar Association President. The legal practitioner shall have three years or more of experience at the bar for being considered for empanelment. The personal traits like competence, integrity, suitability and experience shall be given due consideration. Separate panels shall be maintained for different types of cases. The Regulations also provide for retainer lawyers. The Panel has to be reconstituted every three years without disturbing the work of panel lawyers already representing on-going cases. In such cases where the panel lawyer wishes to withdraw from a case entrusted to him shall communicate this to the Member Secretary and the latter may permit him to do so. 

Behavioural school of thought laid great emphasis on lived experience and also on the perception of space by social categories based on ethnicity, race and religion, etc. 

People migrate from one place to another in search of better living conditions, more employment, better educational and health facilities.

Eg. Urban centres have pull factors which attract people and rural area has push factors which compel people to migrate. 

Error         Correction 

(a) the         a 

(b) is         was 

(c) on        in 

(d) on         by

(a) Sunderban national park is located in Bengal. 

(b) The tigers in the Sunderban Delta are facing a shortage of natural fodder. 

(c) They have been losing weight over a period of time. 

(d) The length of a Sunderban tiger has come down.

The adequacy of each item for lunch is given below with reasons.

• Moong Dal The lactating mother should be given more dal (for more proteins) with little spices. Coriander leaves / palak leaves (for vitamin A) and lemon (for vitamin C) should be added in the dal for her. For the family member suffering from diabetes, whole dal can be given to provide less protein and more fibre.
• Boiled Rice Add broccoli (for folic acid and zinc) to the rice as a garnishing for the lactating mother. For the diabetic, polished rice shoula De totally avoided, as it raises the blood sugar level. However, he can eat brown (unpolished) rice.
• Potato and Carrot Bhajiya The carrot gives Vitamin A and the potatoes give carbohydrates (giving energy), which are both essential for the lactating mother. The diabetic should only eat the carrots. The potatoes will raise the blood sugar; so he should avoid them.
• Chapati As the lactating mother needs more calcium, plain chapatis are inadequate. The dough of the chapatis should be mixed with paneer and then kneaded to give the additional calcium. The diabetic should eat chapatis made from coarse cereals like ragi or jowar. Fine cereals should be avoided, as they raise the blood sugar level.

The three modifications in the menu can be 

• Fried Rice can be replaced by boiled rice as fried food aggravates the digestive system. 
• Dal Palak can be replaced by plain boiled dal with less thickness as leafy vegetables should be avoided to ‘escape mechanical irritation.
• Boondi Raita is not good for a patient suffering from diarrhoea, it should be replaced with plain curd or buttermilk.

The sky, far above could be seen turning orange due to the rising sun. The dog, snoopy, didn’t want to come out of his bed on the cold morning. He could see and smell the fog coming inside his kennel. Just then he heard his master’s call. The dog jumped out of the bed and ran towards the door of the house. Despite being reluctant, his instincts pushed him towards the bedroom of the house, from where he heard his master’s call. Ram, his master, had something unusual in his voice and Snoopy could sense it. As soon he reached the room he saw his master moaning in pain. Ram was a heart patient and often a doctor used to visit him whenever he had even a mild pain in his chest. The clever dog, without giving a second thought, raced out of the house piercing through the fog and stopped at the doctor’s door and barked as loud as he could. The doctor recognised him and guessed the emergency. He rushed towards Ram’s house and gave him the required medicine. It was the dog’s loyalty and intelligence that had saved a life.

Ibn   Battuta 

Semantics is the study of right choice of words. The semantic network of sender may be different from that of the receiver and therefore, the message may not understand as intended. The word ‘profits’ has different meaning-pretax profits or posttax profits, fixed amount of profit or rate of return. 

Various semantic barriers of communication are as follows: 

(a) Symbols with different meaning. A word can have different meaning in different contexts. Wrong perception leads to communication problems. 

(b) Badly expressed message. It may happen on account of omission of needed words, inadequate vocabulary, usage of wrong words, etc. 

(c) Technical Jargon. Sometimes, people may not understand the actual meaning of technical jargon used by specialists.

(d) Body language and gesture decoding. Communication may be wrongly perceived if there is no match between what is said and what is expressed in body movements. 

Supervision means overseeing the subordinates at work. It is an important function of every manager. It implies observing the subordinates at the work to see that they are working according to the plan and policies of the organization and keeping the time-schedule and do help them in solving their work problems. 

Functions of a supervisor are as follows : 

(a) Planning the work. The supervisor has to determine work schedule for even and steady flow of work. He then assigns the work to different workers according to their abilities. He also makes arrangements for raw material, machines, tools and equipment. 

(b) Issuing orders. The supervisor issues orders and instructions to the workers for achieving co-ordination in his section. He tells them what to do and how to do. 

(c) Providing guidance and leadership. The supervisor leads the workers of his department. He fixes production targets for them and provides them the necessary guidance for doing the work assigned to them. He provides good on-the-job training to the workers and employees. 

(d) Motivation. The supervisor motivates his subordinates by providing financial and non-financial incentives. He inspires them for higher quality and productivity.

Gross motor skills. These are larger movements your baby makes with his arms, legs, feet, or his entire body. So crawling, walking, running and jumping are gross motor skills.  

Fine motor skills. These are smaller actions. When your baby picks things up between his finger and thumb or wriggles his toes in the sand, he's using his fine motor skills. But it's not just about fingers and toes. When your baby uses his lips and tongue to taste and feel objects, he's using fine motor skills too.

Some strains of Bacillus thuringiensis produce proteins that kill some insects like lepidopterans (tobacco budworm, armyworm), coleopterans (beetles) and dipterans (flies, mosquitoes). Bt toxins are initially inactive protoxins but after ingestion by the insect their inactive toxin becomes active due to the alkaline pH of the gut which solublise the crystals. The activated toxin binds to the surface of midgut epithelial cells thus creating pores which causes cell swelling and lysis, further leading to death of the insects.

The shoot apex and few leaf primordia is enclosed in a hollow foliar structure in epicotyl region called coleoptile. 

Coleorhiza is an undifferentiated sheath that encloses the radicle and root cap. They both have protective function. Coleoptile protects the plumule and coleorhiza protects the radicle of the embryonal axis.

Genetically engineered insulin: Production of insulin by rDNA techniques was achieved by an American company, Eli Lilly, in 1983. It prepared two DNA sequences corresponding to A and B chains of human insulin and introduced them in plasmids of E.coli for production. The A and B chains produced were separated, extracted and combined by creating disulfide bonds to form human insulin. 

Since insulin produced from non-human sources causes allergy or other reactions to the foreign protein, genetically engineered insulin is preferred.