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Main Features of Sovereignty:

 Main features of sovereignty are the following: 

1. Absoluteness: 

Sovereignty is always absolute and unlimited. It does not depend on any other power. All the individuals and their groups are under the sovereign state. Outside the state also, sovereign individual is considered to be the supreme in matter of his state. No other state can interfere in his internal matter, nether can force him for any thing.

2. Universality: 

Sovereignty is supreme among all the persons, organizations and other matters within the state. State can itself keep out anything out of its jurisdiction, but no person or organization has the right to keep itself out of the jurisdiction of the state. Sovereignty is universal, omnipresent and public power within the jurisdiction of the state.

3. Inalienability: 

Sovereignty is intact. So, it cannot be given to anyone else. If a sovereign state transfers its sovereignty to anyone, its own existence will be lost.

4. Permanence: 

Sovereignty is permanent. As long as the state exists, sovereignty also exists. Both cannot be separated from each other.

5. Indivisibility: 

Sovereignty is complete and universal. It cannot be divided into parts. Dividing sovereignty will mean the division of state. 

6. Exclusiveness: 

There cannot be two sovereigns in a state. It there will be two sovereigns in one state, then unity of the state will be destroyed.

• Absoluteness 
•  Universality.

Political equality is reflected in Universal Adult Franchise.

President Fakhruddin Ali Ahmad at midnight on 25 June 1975.

After the 1971 election, Indira became a popular leader with a lot of support from the people. This time there were serious problems in the Party. 

There were three main reasons:

• Economic Reasons
• Gujarat & Bihar Movement
• Dispute with the Judiciary

The main slogan in the 1971 election was ‘garibi hatao’. But when the government came to power it could not improve the economic condition of the country, There were a number of reasons for that. First of all there was the refuge problem. Then there was the Bangladesh Crisis, followed by the Indo Pakistan War. All these things created financial problems. Secondly, after the War, America stopped its aids to India.

Thirdly, there was a sharp increase in oil prices. The 4th reason was inflation which made the life of ordinary people very difficult. The 5th problem was negative growth in industrial output. Unemployment increased, especially in the rural sector. Sixthly, the salaries of government employees had to be reduced and even stopped. Seventhly, lack of rain caused serious shortfall in food stuff. All the above things created an economic crisis in the country. There was general discontentment in the country. This gave the Opposition Parties an opportunity to organise protests.

Gujarat and Bihar Movement:

The second biggest problem was the students’ protest in Gujarat and Bihar which were Congress ruled States. The main reason was the increase in the prices of essential commodities. Shortage of food, unemployment and corruption made the students angry. In both these States the Opposition Parties supported the students. In Gujarat, Presidential Rule was imposed. At this time the main opponent of Indira Gandhi and the leader of Congress (O), Morarji Desai, decided to go on an indefinite hunger strike.

He did that for demanding elections in Gujarat. In June 1975, because of heavy pressure from various sources, election was conducted. Congress lost the election. In Bihar the students invited Jay Prakash Narayan to lead their protest. He accepted the invitation insisting that the protest must be non violent.

He asked for the dismissal of the Bihar government. He argued that there was a need for a revolution in social, economic and political spheres. But the Bihar government refused to resign. The entire country discussed the issue. Jay Prakash Narayan wanted to spread the protest to all parts of the country. In the meantime the railway workers went on a strike.

It would make the entire country come to a stand still. In 1975, Jay Prakash Narayan organized a march to the Parliament. It was the biggest rally the capital had ever seen. The Opposition saw in him an alternative to Indira Gandhi. Both the protests were anti Congress. Voices also rose against the leadership of Mrs. Gandhi. She believed that all this was done to take revenge on her.

Dispute with the Judiciary:

Another reason for the declaration of Emergency was Indira Gandhi’s dispute with the Judiciary.The Supreme Court said that some of the things the government did were against the Constitution. Congress argued that the Supreme Court judgement was against democracy and the authority of the Parliament. The Party said that the Court was standing against some welfare measures taken to help the poor people. The dispute was mainly in three things.

Firstly, Can the Parliament change the Fundamental Rights The Court said no. Secondly, Can the Parliament change ownership of land? Again the Court said no. Thirdly, the Parliament said that it had the right to reduce fundamental rights. It amended the Constitution. But the Supreme Court objected. Ail these were the reasons for the dispute between the Government and the Supreme Court.

There were two more reasons. In the Kesavananda Bharati case, the Supreme Court judged that the Parliament can’t change the basic structure of the Constitution. Soon the post of the Chief Justice became vacant. Normally the senior most judge is appointed as the Chief Justice. But keeping aside 3 eligible Judges, the government appointed A.N. Roy as the Chief Justice. This appointment became controversial. Besides, the Uttar Pradesh High Court declared the election of Indira Gandhi as null and void. All these were the reasons for Mrs Gandhi to declare Emergency in June 1975.

A committed judiciary meant a judiciary that follows the vision of the executive and the legislature.

Congress government led by Indira Gandhi introduced ‘Twenty Point Programme’ to maintain law and order and to restored efficiency including land reforms, eradication of bonded labor, land redistribution, workers participation in management etc.

Loknayak Jay Prakash Narayan was a Marxist and subsequently became a Gandhian. He was a freedom fighter and became a social activist in independent India. He led the Bhudaan movement. He also led the student agitation in Bihar and opposed the Emergency. He became the leader of the anti-congressism and the anti-Emergency movement whereby the movement came to be known as the J.P. movement.

The Emergency is described as a period of constitutional crisis because it started as the constitutional battle over the jurisdiction of the Parliament and the judiciary. It had been a practice to appoint the senior-most judge of the Supreme Court as the Chief Justice. But in 1973, the government overlooked the seniority of three judges and appointed Justice A. N. Ray as the Chief Justice of India. The appointment was criticized because all the three judges had given rulings against the stand of the government. The government also advocated committed judiciary that meant that the judges should be loyal to the ruling party. The Allahabad High Court passed a judgment declaring Indira Gandhi’s election to the Lok Sabha invalid and subsequently, an amendment was made that declared that elections of the Prime Minister, President and Vice-President could not be challenged in the Court. The government limited the power of judicial review of the judiciary during the Emergency such as filing Habeas Corpus.

The various causes of the Emergency were:

(i) There was conflict between the Executive and the Judiciary whereby the government wanted the loyalty of Courts to them rather than the constitution.

(ii) The Allahabad High Court had revoked the election of Indira Gandhi whereby she was no longer a Member of Parliament and could not continue as Prime Minister.

(iii) The opposition had begun to conduct mass movements against the government and the mood of the nation was turning against the government. J.P. Narayan had conducted huge protests outside the Indian parliament and there rise in agitation across India such as the railway strike.

(iv) The Indira Gandhi government asserted that it desired to pursue welfare schemes and bring law and order to the nation and for this, the Emergency was implemented.

(v) There has been a rise in inflation and unemployment. There were students’ protests in various parts of India such as Bihar and Gujarat.

(vi) Congress had received multiple defeats in State assembly elections across India. The opposition had begun to form alliances and coalitions and gather the support of the people. The government misused the provision of President’s rule. This led to conflict between the Centre and States.

OR

Circumstances that led to imposition of emergency:

(i) Clash between the executive (government) and judiciary.

(ii) Rising prices and lower growth rate.

(iii) Railway strike led by Gorge Fernandes.

(iv) A big rally at Ram Lila Maidan and call to the employees including police/ army not to obey the undemocratic orders.

(v) Students’ movements in Bihar and Gujarat against price rise and corruption.

(vi) Judgement of Allahabad High Court setting aside the election of Indira Gandhi.

Jayaprakash Narayan, leader of Janata Party.

The post of the Chief Justice of India became vacant and it had been a practice to appoint the senior-most judge of the Supreme Court as the Chief Justice. But in 1973, the government superseded three senior most judges and appointed Justice A. N. Ray as the Chief Justice of India. This caused tensions to rise between the executive and the judiciary.

That there are some basic features of the constitution not to be amended by parliament at all. It led to a crisis between the government and the judiciary.

It became politically controversial because in this appointment the government set aside the seniority of three judges who had given ruling against the stand of government.

Different parts of the criminal justice system have different roles to play. A particular task needs a particular set of skills and expertise. For example; the job of a police is entirely different from the job of a lawyer. On the other hand, a judge needs to be neutral and has to hear the case without prejudice. So there is a need of different persons for different roles in the criminal justice system.

(i) Renewable resources are those that will either never run out or are renewed through relatively rapid natural cycles.

(ii) Some habits to switch in daily life are :

(a) Switch-off lights when not needed at homes.

(b) Use compact fluorescent lamps.

(c) Use solar cookers, solar cells.

(d) Use energy efficient electrical appliances

(i) The revolutionary spirit spread all over Europe only after the French Revolution took place in 1789. The ideas of liberty, equality and fraternity gained popularity among people all over Europe. 

(ii) Educated people especially got attracted to these ideas.

(iii) The political upheaval in France that took place in July 1830 sparked revolutions in places like Brussels which led to Belgium breaking away from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands. 

(iv) In this way we see that France was one of the most important countries of Europe. It spread awareness among the people of Europe. 

(v) It set values and standards for the entire continent. Other countries of the continent just followed what France did.

(i) The Habsburg Empire that ruled over Austria—Hungary included the Alpine regions—the Tyrol, Austria and the Sudetenland—as well as Bohemia, where the aristocracy was pre-dominantly German-speaking. 

(ii) The Empire also included the Italian-speaking provinces of Lombardy and Venetia. 

(iii) In Hungary, half of the population spoke Magyar while the other half spoke a variety of dialects. In Galicia, the aristocracy spoke Polish. Besides these dominant groups, there also lived within the boundaries of the empire, a mass of subject peasant peoples—Bohemians and Slovaks to the north, Slovenes in Carniola, Croats to the south and Roumans to the east in Transylvania.

The relations with China experience friendly gestures from India as India signed popular ‘Panchsheel’ to develop Indo-China relations in 1954 and advocated China’s membership to the United Nations. Still, after 1957, various contentious issues arose in Indo- China relations: 

1. In 1962, military conflict over a border dispute of MacMohan Line resulted on an unwarranted claim by China which now lie in Arunachal Pradesh and Aksai Chin region of Ladakh. 

2. Differences arose from Chinese take over of Tibet in 1950 which was protested by India against China. 

3. After Panchsheel, attack by China on India in 1962, to occupy larger territories of India, created humiliation. 

4. China’s assistance to Pakistan’s nuclear programme also created differences. 

5. China’s military relations with Bangladesh and Myanmar were viewed as hostile to Indian interests. 

All the above-mentioned differences/ disputes could be resolved for greater cooperation: 

1. Both the countries should make some more efforts to revive a harmonious attitude between themselves. 

2. Both the countries should move hand-in-hand to fight against terrorism, nuclear race and economic disparities. 

3. Both the countries should develop understanding and respect. 

4. Hence, both of them have signed agreements on cultural exchange and cooperation in science and technology.

This statement represents the ASEAN Regional Forum and the European Union, where ASEAN Regional Forum is based on the notion not to escalate territorial disputes into an armed confrontation: 

1. The ASEAN is rapidly growing as a regional organization with the Vision 2020 including an outward-looking role in an international community and to encourage negotiations over conflicts in the region. 

2. ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) maintains coordination of security and foreign policy. 

3. The EU has also been funded on the ground of common foreign and security policy, cooperation on justice and home affairs. 

4. The European Union has also extended cooperation while acquiring new members, especially from Soviet bloc.

They are members of the municipal corporation and municipalities who are elected from among the popular and respected citizens of that city. They are generally experienced.

A municipal corporation is elected for a period of 5 year

The total number of members of a municipal corporation of a city depends on the population of the city.

The Mayor is the head of the municipal corporation. He/she is elected by members of the municipal corporation from among themselves.

The municipal corporation is responsible for these public works and services:

1. Construction and maintenance of roads, bridges, public buildings, markets, crematoria and graveyards.

2. Construction and maintenance of water supply system.

3. Arrangements for street lighting.

4. Maintenance of fire’brigade.

5. Demolition of dangerous or illegal buildings

6. Maintaining records of births and deaths.

Seats are reserved for following categories.

1. Scheduled castes

2. Scheduled Tribes

3. A few seats are reserved for women.

Municipalities get funds by imposing various taxes such as: 

1. Octroi Duty—Tax on goods and animals brought into or taken out of the town. 

2. House Tax — Tax on houses in the town. This tax is fixed by the municipality according to the annual rental value of the houses. 

3. Water Tax — Tax as charges for providing clean water for drinking. People who have municipality taps in their houses have to pay it. 

4. Profession Tax — Lawyers, doctors and other professionals pay profession tax on their annual income. 

5. Income from Municipal Property — Tax paid as rent by the shopkeepers and traders selling goods in the markets.

6. Entertainment Tax — Tax collected from those who provide different kinds of entertainment, e.g., cinema halls. They also receive annual financial aids and grants from the state government.

The cities with a population of upto 3 lakhs are managed by municipalities. The people of the city elect the members of a municipality. The number of members depends upon the size of the city. Seats are reserved for the SC, ST, OBC and women. The larger cities have Municipal Corporation. The members of a municipal corporation are elected in the same way as the members of a municipality. These members are called ‘councillors’. These councillors elect some other members, the aldermen who are respected citizens. The members elect a head called Mayor and also a Deputy Mayor.

Smaller cities and towns with population ranging between 20,0005,00,000 have municipalities as the local self-governing body.

Municipal Corporation 

1. Meant for big cities having large populations. 

2. Have more power 

3. Have more resources in hand 

4. Deal with the state Government directly 

Municipalities 

1. Meant for small cities and towns. 

2. Have less power 

3. Have less resources 

4. Work through the district administration

A municipal corporation is composed in following manner. 

1. The Mayor is the head of the municipal corporation. The mayor and deputy mayor are elected by the members of the municipal corporation from among themselves. 

2. The corporation sets up a number of committee to look after the day to day work. 

3. There is a chief executive officer or municipal commissioner, who is appointed by the state government. 

4. There are also number of members called aldermen. They are elected from among the popular and respected citizens of that city. 

5. MPs and MLA also form part of the corporation. 

6. Some seats are reserved for the scheduled caste, scheduled Tribes and women. A municipal corporation is elected for a period of 5 years.

1. Keeping the city clean is the primary duty of a municipality. The municipality has to make arrangements for the removal of the garbage and waste. Drains are needed to flush out dirty water from the cities and towns. 

2. The municiplities not only keep the cities clean but they also ! make arrangements for vaccination against smallpox and inoculation against diseases like cholera, plague and tuberculosis. 

3. The municipalities also make arrangements for checking food adulteration. 

4. A municipality opens hospitals, dispensaries and other medical centres in different localities where qualified doctors are employed. 

5. One of the important functions of a municipality is to keep a record of all the births and deaths in the city. It helps in the planning of welfare services for the people.

Optional functions of the municipal corporation are following:

1. Establishment and maintenance of public parks, gardens, zoos, theatres, picnic resorts, libraries, museums.

2. Construction and maintenance of old-age homes, orphanages, night shelters, rest houses.

3. Supply of cooking gas and milk.

4. Organizing cultural events like sports, exhibitions, fairs, etc.

5. Maintenance of a cheap public transport system.

The chief executive officer of a municipal corporation is known as the municipal commissioner.

The mayor presides over the meetings of the municipal corporation.

He presides over the meeting and looks after the work of the corporation with the help of the executives officers like Municipal commissioner, chief medical officer etc.

Tadasana stretches the entire spine and helps to increase height in few cases.

Procedure for Tadasana:

Stand upright with feet together or little apart, and the arms by the sides. Body weight should be equally distributed on both the feet. Raise the arms vertically over the head. Interlock the fingers of the two hands and turn the palms upwards. Now place the hands on top of the head, with palms facing downward. Focus the gaze at some point on the wall in front, at an elevated angle and keep the gaze focussed there throughout the practice. Inhale and stretch the arms shoulder, chest upward, simultaneously turning the palms upwards and come on the toes. Hold in this position for few seconds. Lower the heels while breathing out and bring the hands back to the starting position. Practice 5-10 times.

'Tad' in Sanskrit means "palm tree". This standing asana helps to develop focus and mental clarity. Both the arms are stretched overhead. Elbow is straight with plams facing each other. SIowly come on your toes. Maintains this posture for 10-20 seconds.

This asana strengthens the hamstring muscles and increases flexibility in the hip joint. It tones up and massages the entire abdominal and pelvic region thereby rejuvenating the liver, pancreas, spleen, kidneys and adrenal glands. It removes excessive weight in this region and helps alleviate disorders of the urogenital systems. It stimulates circulation to the nerves and muscles of the spine. This asana in used for the management of menstrual disorder, bad liver, diabetes, asthma colitis, kidney malfunction, bronchitis and eosinophilia.

This asana helps develop physical and mental balance. The entire spine is stretched and loosened helping to clear up the congestion of the spinal nerves at the point where they emerge from the spinal column. It also stretches the abdominal muscles and the intestines. It is very,good asana for hypertension patient.

Technique: 

(a) Lie down in supine position. 

(b) Place the hands a little away from the thighs with the palms facing up. 

(c) Keep the fist slightly close. 

(d) Keep the legs relaxed and feet apart. 

(e) Breath slowly rhythmically but naturally 

(f) Consciously and gradually relax every muscle and each part of the body, feet, . calves, knees, thighs, abdomen and hips. Then relax the muscles of the back, chest, arms, fingers, neck, head. 

(g) Inhale and exhale slowly and deeply relax the brain during exhalation. 

(h) Direct the attention to the breathing, to the soul and to the God. 

(i) Retain the meditation for a few minutes.

In sanskrit 'Shava' means dead body. It is a traditional relaxing posture. In this, energy part of body is kept fully relaxed and focus on breathing.

Gujarat, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu.

Correct option is:

(c) Barauni

Koyali, Digboi, Noonmati and Bongaigaon.

Mathura and Barauni

List of social injustice found in Indian society. The caste system, poverty, child labor, child marriage, low status of women, gender inequality at work, dowry system, the problem faced by women, the problem faced by slum children, migrants, disabled, etc.

(i) Social injustice seen among slum children’s 

Form of social injustice we see in our nearby slum area such as lack of proper sanitation, safe drinking water, shortage of space, lack of quality education in municipal schools, high proportion of girls are dropouts to support their family, they work as domestic maids. Though there are legal measures to protect human rights we see child labour is on rampant in slums.

Smile Foundation, beginning in the corridors of education, it has adopted a lifecycle approach with intensive programmes which addresses the needs of less privileged children, their families and the larger community.

Asha for education projects deal with educational issues from pre-primary schooling to professional education in locations from urban slums to isolated rural areas.

(ii) The problem faced by migrants 

Migrants are more vulnerable to discrimination and exploitation as many of them are poor, illiterate, and live in slums and hazardous locations prone to disaster and natural calamities. There is a lack of urban policies and programmes catering to the needs and settlements of migrants.

The National Domestic Workers’ Movement. 

(iii) Challenges faced by disability 

Disabled face problem of loss of independence, transportation, accessibility issue, loss of independence, education, employment etc.

Narayan Seva Sansthan, established in 1985, is a non-profit charitable organization based in Udaipur, Rajasthan. It is known for providing philanthropic services in the field of treatment and rehabilitation of polio-affected people without discrimination of religion, region, caste, or gender.

Replacement level refers to the rate of growth required for new generations to replace the older ones that are dying out. 

Replacement level refers to giving birth to two children that replacement completes. States at the replacement level of population growth: Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Goa, Nagaland, Manipur, Tripura, Jammu and Kashmir and Punjab

States very near to the replacement levels of population growth: Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram and West Bengal. 

States having very high rates of population growth: U.P., Bihar, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh. 

Reasons of regional differences: 

• Difference in Literacy Percentage in different states. 

• Societal conditions vary in different states. Terrorism, war-like conditions and insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir and North-East. 

• Socio-Economic conditions vary in different states.  

(i) Number of BPL people is highest among states like Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Odisha. 

(ii) Socio-cultural formation: A belief that more children means more hands to earn or religious beliefs.

The National Domestic Workers’ Movement 

[Registered as National Domestic Workers’ Welfare Trust under the Bombay Public Trust Act 1950, Regd. No. E-17253-(Mumbai)] has been at the forefront of championing the rights of domestic workers, children in domestic work and migrant domestic workers, since 1985. It was founded by Dr. (Sr.) Jeanne Devos. 

NDWM encourages empowerment of domestic workers through solidarity, participation and leadership training. Together we work for the labour rights of domestic workers, seeking dignity and justice.

The challenges faced by them are:

• The stigmatisation of domestic workers and their work.
• Total absence of Rights and Legal protection. 
• Absence of training, support and bargaining power.

The objectives of the movement are:

• Dignity for domestic work and domestic workers. 
• Rights and Legal Protection. 
• Support and empowerment.